"NARRATOR:" "Ancient Egypt." "For over 3000 years." "the world's most vibrant and puzzling civilisation flourished through war and peace." "The Egyptians built great cities." "enduring monuments." "they advanced mathematics and technology." "Their astonishing legacy survives to this day." "As the country grows richer." "its neighbours grow bolder." "Now. archaeologists have revealed" "Egypt's brilliant strategy to repel the foreign threat." "a strategy devised by its greatest warrior king..." "Thutmose lll." "By striking first." "Thutmose hopes to extend his empire and stabilise Egypt's borders." "His plan is untested... his generals are sceptical... and he risks losing everything." "But his enemies have left him no choice." "ln 1 457 BC." "Egypt finds itself in great danger." "The country's former allies in the Near East have joined forces." "threatening Egypt's borders." "But Pharaoh Thutmose lll and his soldiers won't wait for the enemy to strike." "They head towards Megiddo." "a fortress city near the Carmel Mountains in modern Israel." "Beyond these hills." "the enemies of Pharaoh wait." "ready to attack." "Going out to meet them is a high-risk strategy." "The future of the pharaoh and of his empire depend on its success." "ln the face of this barrier." "Pharaoh's armies halt." "As they gather in the camp." "there is a critical disagreement about the best route to take." "No one knows where the enemy has positioned his forces." "His generals advise Thutmose to send his men around the mountains." "Pharaoh must decide." "The fate of the empire is at stake." "The Egyptians are in Canaan." "four weeks' march from their own territory." "This region. now roughly Palestine and Lebanon." "is Egypt's security zone." "The city-states here were neutral or under Egyptian control... until the Mitanni." "Egypt's greatest rival." "stole their loyalty." "Meanwhile. in Egypt's capital Thebes." "the pharaoh's subjects eagerly await news of the campaign." "Like all of Egypt." "Thebes' wealth depends on trade and the tributes of subdued territories." "Now all that is at risk." "Bustling with more than 50.000 people." "this is one of the biggest cities in the world." "Time hasn't diminished its magnificence." "Even some of the bright paint miraculously clings to the columns." "Triumphant reliefs tell of Thutmose's glorious reign." "Yet with foreign powers threatening the country." "the proud Egyptians were forced to acknowledge they weren't alone in the world." "This required an interesting change in attitude because in early periods of Egyptian history." "the Egyptian word for 'Egyptian' was the same as the Egyptian word for 'human being'." "ln the New Kingdom." "they began to recognise the greater equality of foreigners " "Syrians." "Sudanese." "Cretans. whatever." "Egypt's neighbours enviously gazed on the country's enormous prosperity." "While adjacent peoples suffered from frequent droughts." "the Egyptians were blessed by geography and enjoyed regular. plentiful harvests." "Though Egypt is g0% desert." "the Nile watered wide. fertile fields that grew ample grain to feed some 3 million people." "This easy abundance made the empire one of the most stable societies of the ancient world." "And through trade. the people of the Nile magnified their wealth." "funding the world's largest monuments... the pyramids." "Clearly. the gods must have loved the Egyptians." "Egyptians were probably a very arrogant people because they were convinced that no one had it better than the Egyptians." "The gods had given Egypt the most wonderful country in the world." "And most foreigners who came here said the same thing:" ""You've got this wonderful river that always provides water." ""You've got these wonderful fields that always provide crops." ""You don't have to work very hard to grow these things." "This is heaven on earth."" "Thutmose grows up in a world that knows neither famine nor war." "He comes to the throne as a child after his father's early death." "But the little king is far too young to rule." "So his aunt and stepmother." "Hatshepsut." "takes over as regent." "Tradition dictates that pharaohs be men but Hatshepsut aspires to divine authority to rule for life." "She gathers power and finally claims the throne through classical political networking." "I've tried to put together myself a list of all those governmental officials and high nobility who stood behind her." "And that may be the secret." "There may have been a kind of... I was going to say cabal." "but that may be too strong a word - a coterie of supporters who were quite influential." "more so than we think today." "To affirm her legitimacy as regent." "Hatshepsut alters her appearance on temple reliefs and official statuaries." "At first. she's portrayed as a woman with breasts and feminine features." "But soon she dons the ceremonial beard worn by pharaohs before her." "Hatshepsut has officially transformed into a male pharaoh." "Although Thutmose will be her future rival." "Hatshepsut employs the country's best teachers for the boy." "He learns astronomy. mathematics." "religion and medicine." "They teach him about Egypt's victories... but they also warn him about the great threat Egypt faces." "Foreign domination." "Only two centuries earlier." "a foreign tribe wrested control of northern Egypt." "much to the shock of the people." "They had always believed their country was invincible." "Yet. in 1 648 BC." "the Hyksos. a nomadic people from the north-east. had moved in." "They split the empire into two rival factions." "For millennia. the country had been protected by its natural boundaries." "lnhospitable deserts flanked the empire to the east and to the west." "making invasion almost impossible." "An army would die of thirst before it came in sight of an enemy." "To the north." "Lower Egypt was protected by the marshes of the Nile Delta." "No enemy could cross them." "Or so it seemed." "And far to the south. the rocks and rapids of the Nile cataracts made the river unnavigable along great stretches." "The Egyptians were fully aware of their great good fortune." "Egypt is naturally protected." "and if the government of the day simply keeps up a few border forts with a handful of garrison troops." "that's all that's needed." "you can easily keep anybody out." "And they did. for the first 1 5 centuries of their history." "They were remarkably successful in keeping all foreigners that were unwanted out of the country." "But the Hyksos were different." "With just one technological advancement." "they infiltrated the delta and then went on the attack from inside the country." "To speed their invasion. the Hyksos used a new and terrifying weapon... the chariot." "With this superior technology." "they drove the Egyptian militias far to the south." "On and on they rolled." "It seemed nothing could stop them." "There was one attempt to fight them off." "An ancestor of Thutmose." "King Sequenenre Tao. made a stand." "A pharaoh facing the impossible - a full-scale invasion of his country." "But he had no chance against this well-armed. superior fighting force from distant lands." "Sequenenre Tao paid with his life." "His mummy clearly shows the terrible wounds that led to an agonising death." "That really had shaken the ego of the Egyptians. you know." "to be invaded by these people that they despised." "And successfully invaded." "for 1 08 years." "That was a blow to their pride and a blow to their whole world vision." "After King Sequenenre Tao." "King Ahmose. the ruler of Thebes." "finally put an end to the foreign domination." "Archaeologists pieced together this relief." "the only account of Ahmose's victory over the Hyksos." "Ahmose had learned from his enemies and beat them at their own game." "He built war chariots to expel the invaders from his country." "Ahmose reunited Egypt's north and south." "heralding what's known as the New Kingdom whose pharaohs swore to restore Egypt's glory and face down all foreign threats... always." "But in the Near East. a new power is already gathering strength... the Mitanni. a warrior tribe more formidable than the Hyksos and bent on expansion." "The Mitanni are trying to weaken Egypt's influence in the north-east." "They forge alliances with the rulers of the Canaan region." "promising to free them from the taxes imposed by Egypt." "As the Mitanni close in on Egypt's borders." "their ranks swell with their enemy's former vassals." "ln the Egyptian capital of Thebes." "time is running out." "But Thutmose. now grown." "and Hatshepsut disagree on what to do." "He wants to mobilise his army immediately to intercept the enemy before it reaches the borders of Egypt." "Hatshepsut prefers to wait." "She wants to avoid war at all costs." "especially a war beyond the boundaries of the empire." "And even though Thutmose is the rightful heir." "Hatshepsut has yet to surrender the throne." "Thutmose insists that his strategy is the only way to save Egypt." "But Hatshepsut calls the shots and he must obey." "I think that that distinction between Hatshepsut as a conservative." "looking backward. in a sense." "with her roots in the past... as opposed to Thutmose lll who... adopts this new outlook of expansion and involvement and a dynamic approach to life." "Thutmose. denied his war against the Mitanni." "directs his attention elsewhere." "to the region between Egypt and Nubia." "a scene of constant conflict to the south." "His ancestors had already built a chain of fortresses along the Nile." "But the young king wants to reinforce them." "flexing his military muscle and proving that Egypt is still strong." "The Nubians. fearsome warriors." "constantly raided Egypt from the south." "Today. most of Egypt's border fortresses have disappeared." "Their remains were swallowed up in the 1 g60s when the Aswan Dam created Lake Nasser." "But thanks to old archaeological records." "we have a sense of what these forts looked like." "Around 500 soldiers lived in each fort complex." "which operated like a small. walled tower." "They contained barracks for the soldiers." "storehouses for food." "workshops and temples." "Watchtowers on the walls provided an unobstructed view for kilometres." "But these forts weren't just for defence against invasion." "They also protected the trade routes." "Every pharaoh. including Thutmose." "wanted access to the valuable raw materials of Nubia." "including gold... and human beings." "Egypt basically and historically looks south." "not only for its conquest but also for where it got its products." "And one of those products that we tend forget today was manpower." "They would send caravans down." "that we would perhaps today call slave-raiding caravans." "and they would come back with thousands of Nubians." "Thutmose's southern campaign is successful." "He returns from Nubia with large numbers of slaves." "His officers turn them into paid. privileged soldiers because Nubian warriors are considered superb archers." "Equipped with newly designed bows." "they can inflict terrible injuries." "even from a great distance." "Quietly." "Thutmose builds a powerful army." "The pharaoh is convinced." "He can't avoid war with the Mitanni." "And for that. he'll need not just good soldiers. but more weapons." "He fires up the foundries." "His military workshops in Memphis forge axes and hatchets." "spears and arrowheads of bronze - the weapons the Egyptians have long relied on." "But Thutmose plays it a little differently this time." "Taking a page from Egypt's old enemy. the Hyksos." "he's equipping his army with war chariots." "The Egyptians have taken the old Hyksos chariot and radically improved it." "We know what these chariots looked like from illustrations on Egyptian temple walls." "And a perfectly preserved." "gilded ceremonial chariot was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun." "It demonstrates in every detail how the Egyptians constructed their war machines." "They built the chassis from bent wood." "Extra spokes strengthened the wheels." "The wide axle kept the chariot stable even in sharp turns." "The leather fighting platform could absorb blows." "And the chariot was held together by pins. sockets and leather straps." "Damaged parts could be exchanged." "Soldiers could dismantle the chariot and carry it over long distances." "Something never done before." "Manoeuvring this hi-tech apparatus takes skill and lots of practice." "Two men have to work together in a confined space." "the driver and the archer." "Chariot. horses and soldiers have to form a single unit to be able to react quickly in battle." "Years of training were needed before they could go to war... so they could be sure of hitting their targets." "moving at high speed over uneven ground." "The young pharaoh enjoyed his time among his soldiers." "far from life in the palace." "Those two things." "the chariotry corps and the archers... owed a debt to the Hyksos." "very definitely." "but the Egyptians now developed these two arms into very. very important aspects of their army." "Thutmose has gathered more than 1 2.000 men under his command - the biggest army of its time." "He now can put them to use because the pharaoh has received important news." "His aunt Hatshepsut is dead." "It is the end of an era." "Her memorial is a huge temple at Thebes." "Built in her own lifetime." "it celebrates the peaceful era of the most powerful woman in Egypt's history." "Her ships set out to distant lands... and returned home." "loaded with exotic woods." "gold. and slaves." "Hatshepsut is laid to rest in the Valley of the Kings." "According to custom. the country mourns the regent's death for 70 days." "And that gives Egypt's enemies to the north-east the opportunity they've been waiting for." "It was time to join forces." "With Hatshepsut's sickening." "the whole world began to know it." "I mean. there was communication." "And so it would appear to those forces that wanted to get back into Egypt that now was the time." "A powerful coalition of enemy princes gathers close to Megiddo." "ready to strike west." "For years." "Thutmose has failed to take action against the Asian threat." "Now. he has to act swiftly to forestall the enemy." "by attacking first." "The pharaoh leads his army north-east from Memphis through 400 kilometres of barren. hostile landscape to Gaza. in Canaan." "The desert has protected the Egyptians for thousands of years." "Now they have to cross it." "They form a gigantic column... 1 2.000 men and 2400 animals." "An army this size needs regular supplies." "including 50.000 litres of fresh water every day." "Until recently. no one knew how they managed it." "But new discoveries reveal the level of foresight and planning the Egyptians invested in these desert campaigns." "Ancient stone route-markers and millions of pottery fragments strewn in remote parts of the Sahara reveal forgotten trade routes." "Surprisingly. the ancient Egyptians had no camels to make the journey." "They had to rely on oxen and donkeys." "And so they developed a sophisticated water-supply system." "Huge caravans headed out in front of the army." "loaded with thousands of litres of water." "creating artificial rest stops in the desert." "Every 70 kilometres. these advance units would set up stores of water." "providing vitally needed refreshments for the following troops." "Today. the millions of pottery fragments clearly indicate the ancient trade routes through the Sahara." "They demonstrate the unquestioned coordination and cooperation so typical of ancient Egypt." "After ten days." "Thutmose and his army reach Palestine." "They have defeated the desert of Sinai." "But 1 1 days' strenuous marching still separate them from their target." "Megiddo." "A fortified town perched strategically on a hilltop in modern-day Israel." "lts lofty position makes sneak attacks against it virtually impossible." "Today. fields carpet the area." "Then. it was a vital part of the trade route." "It was here that Thutmose's enemies gathered." "If you're just here at Megiddo." "you can command the Jezreel Valley." "And if you command the valley." "you command this whole region." "So Megiddo is an extremely strategic place." "Thutmose lll knew it." "so did the Canaanite rebels." "That's why they meet here." "It's not only a great place to fight but whoever wins controls the entire area." "Thutmose's army is just 30 kilometres from Megiddo." "But now the Carmel Mountains stand in their way." "The pharaoh faces three choices." "He can bypass the rugged hills." "taking the northern or the southern route." "Or... he can attempt to cross them. head on." "While the soldiers rest." "Thutmose summons his generals to a war council." "The mountains are treacherous." "he is told." "Crossing them is a fool's errand." "His generals are quite clear about it." "The soldiers have already endured a four-week march." "Traversing the mountain would only exhaust them before the coming battle." "But Thutmose sees it differently." "more strategically." "The pharaoh's plan of action at this crucial moment is immortalised on the temple walls of Karnak." "So important was his decision that the fate of Egypt depended on it." "At moments like this. history is made." "As we see in this hieroglyphic record here." "which actually are excerpts from the king's own diary." "Pharaoh said "No. I am going to go through the narrow pass." ""so as not to give any impression to the enemy that I am weak or cowardly."" "Thutmose orders the advance." "straight over the mountains." "A narrow and extended column of troops snakes its way uphill." "Dismantled chariots slow their progress." "As they crawl over the rocks." "the troops are vulnerable to attack." "But Thutmose knows it's too late to turn back." "There's no time for second-guessing." "His men follow without question." "but surely some believe they are marching to their deaths." "The pharaoh suspects the enemy's leader." "Canaanite King of Kadesh." "positioned his troops along the northern and southern approaches to Megiddo." "He can only hope the king left the mountain route undefended." "The Egyptian troops struggle as the mountain pass squeezes tighter at every corner." "Any moment now." "the coalition forces could attack." "The route is almost impassable." "The soldiers barely make any progress." "As tempers fray." "Pharaoh is forced to acknowledge this may be a terrible mistake." "But. miraculously." "the Egyptians reach the end of the pass." "Ahead of them spreads the Plain of Megiddo." "They made it past this obstacle but the hardest work still lies ahead." "The crucial battle is about to begin." "At daybreak. the Egyptians launch a surprise attack on the enemy camp." "Too late. the King of Kadesh realises that he's been outwitted." "He has allowed Thutmose and his 1 2.000 troops to cross the mountains unimpeded." "He has seriously underestimated the pharaoh's ability as a war leader." "It spells disaster as the Egyptians hopelessly outnumber the Canaanite units on the plain." "With no time to call for reinforcements." "the Canaanite coalition must retreat." "The victorious Egyptians seem to be entering a deserted enemy camp." "ln fact. the King of Kadesh is waiting for the chance to follow his fleeing troops to safety." "Suddenly. the moment for the escape arrives as greed gets the better of Thutmose's army." "Instead of pursuing the enemy." "the Egyptian troops stay behind to plunder the camp... to the fury of their general and emperor." "ln Pharaoh's own words." "Thutmose lll's own words." "taken from his daybook. which we see here in this hieroglyphic text." "he said "lf only my army had not given its attention" ""to the plundering of the enemy camp." ""Megiddo would have been taken in a single day."" "Thutmose has won his first great battle." "But his inexperience and his troops' lack of discipline have let the enemy escape." "As the Egyptians gather their loot." "the Canaanite coalition holes up inside Megiddo." "Throughout its long history." "Megiddo has been a formidable fortress." "Today. a team of students excavates the city. level by level." "They dig through the sand of thousands of years of civilisation... before reaching the city foundations from the time of Thutmose lll." "The fragments of pottery they collect are the best way to date the different layers." "When they find foundations from more than 3000 years ago." "they reconstruct the shape of the fortress and of the buildings inside." "It turns out that Megiddo was not a fortress with great defensive walls." "They weren't necessary." "There was a palace in a certain part of the city." "We know where the gate was." "We know where the temple was." "So the two most important components of a city like this." "their location is well known." "And then we know that there was no major fortification surrounding this site." "but houses built." "connected to each other." "and forming some sort of a belt of houses which gave protection to the people inside." "Megiddo's fortified houses perched atop a steep hill protect the King of Kadesh and his men." "According to ancient sources." "the siege lasts for seven months." "How they could hold out for so long has always been a mystery." "Until archaeologists discovered remnants of a sophisticated supply system." "A huge tunnel." "dug deep into the mountain." "supplied the city with water." "Thutmose lll says they held out for seven months." "so they obviously had enough water and enough food." "Now. what he doesn't say is how they finally captured the city." "They must have breached the walls." "must have knocked down the city gates or they paid somebody to open up the gates." "Something very common in antiquity." "they must have done." "Whatever happened." "Megiddo finally fell." "The Egyptians at last defeat their enemies." "The King of Kadesh and his allies are brought before the pharaoh." "It's time for Thutmose to show his skills as statesman." "to find a way to rule this conquered territory so far away from his capital in Thebes." "Challenging the pharaoh is like blasphemy." "Violators can expect no mercy." "The generals demand their enemies be put to death." "But the King of Kadesh begs for the lives of his family." "Once more." "Thutmose ignores his generals and follows his own instincts dealing with his enemies." "At that point. what happened became standard imperial practice for four centuries." "They were forced to take an oath immediately." "never again to rebel against Pharaoh and Egypt." "At the same time they were... it was made plain to them that they had to hand in taxes." "the same kind of taxes that the Egyptian peasants had to hand in." "whenever Pharaoh or his ministers asked for them." "And finally. they were obliged to give up their young children." "Thutmose spares the lives of the rebel leaders." "But he sends their children to Egypt as hostages." "They will guarantee that their fathers never again disobey the pharaoh's commands." "On the Nile." "they will be raised as Egyptians." "The girls will stay in Egypt." "The boys will one day return to their homeland as vassal kings in the service of the pharaoh." "As an Egyptian. if you're trying to conquer this region." "it makes much more sense to capture the cities and then turn them into an Egyptian capital city. an Egyptian stronghold." "and then rule it." "which is what they do." "They rule this area. they rule Canaan for the next 300 or 400 years from cities like Jerusalem." "like Megiddo. like others." "It makes perfect sense." "Why would you destroy it when it makes much more sense to occupy it?" "Thutmose returns home in triumph." "proving himself a worthy pharaoh and a powerful general." "Throughout the land." "Egyptians hail the victory over the King of Kadesh and the conquest of Megiddo." "Priests throw open the doors to the sanctuaries of the imperial gods." "The spoils of war. the enemy's gold." "are offered to the god who made this victory possible..." "Amun. supreme god of the kingdom and of the fledgling empire." "ln Thebes. the capital." "life feels safer. more secure." "But that feeling is deceptive." "The main enemy. the Mitanni." "have by no means been vanquished." "And they are plotting their revenge." "Thutmose tightens his hold on Canaan." "But his victory is fragile." "He decides to crush the Mitanni in their own country." "He did it only after the first four or five campaigns that consolidated his hold on Palestine - what we would call today Palestine. in the south." "Then he directed his next campaigns against the Lebanese coast." "And to do that. it would be much more useful. and easier. perhaps." "to load his army into transports and send them by water." "Ancient records show that Thutmose planned a land-sea campaign against the Mitanni." "But archaeologists weren't convinced it was possible." "Hundreds of model boats found in tombs and countless temple reliefs show how important ships were to the lives of every Egyptian." "But could they sail the high seas?" "We know. for example." "that Thutmose lll and his men are in contact with Crete." "with mainland Greece." "At this time." "you can only get there by ship." "So we've got the representations on the walls of Rekhmire and other officials of Thutmose lll showing the ships docked at the Egyptian ports." "Despite images and inscriptions." "there was no archaeological proof that Egyptians could build seagoing ships." "Then. a few years ago beside the Red Sea." "researchers discovered remnants of an Egyptian sea port." "one of only two ever found." "A network of at least seven galleries dug deep into fossilised coral." "Tangible evidence that Egyptians could not only sail on the Nile but also on the open sea." "International experts found pottery." "the remains of ships' timbers and texts recording state-sponsored trading ventures." "But the caves held an even bigger surprise." "Deep inside these storehouses." "scientists found the proof." "Cargo and equipment left by Egyptian sailors." "hundreds of metres of ancient ships' ropes." "remains of a seagoing people." "The Egyptians built cargo ships that were capable of long journeys hundreds of years before Thutmose lll." "Marine archaeologist Cheryl Ward has excavated sections of wooden planks." "She needs just a few fragments from the stern to reconstruct the entire ship." "These vessels were much sturdier and bigger than the boats used on the Nile." "Each ship was made from 20 trees." "It could carry 40 people and 1 7 tons of freight." "With 1 4-metre-wide sails." "the ship could travel at 6 knots." "three times faster than donkeys on land." "Another reason this piece of wood is really special is that it's got great examples of the way the Egyptians held their ships together." "They used big pieces of wood we call tenons and they fit inside holes in each plank." "We see the ends of each tenon here." "They're in pairs. and you can imagine another plank jammed up here next to it with these great pieces of wood holding it together." "There's also here what we call a ligature." "They threaded strips of copper through here like ribbon and tied the end of another plank to it." "so that the seam between that plank and the keel was as tight as possible." "This construction-kit approach made it possible to easily dismantle the ships." "just like the Egyptian chariots." "Sailors could transport the pieces over land and reassemble the ship at their destination." "That destination was the empire of the Mitanni." "Thutmose's arch-enemy." "g00 kilometres from Egypt." "Thutmose sails north with 1 70 ships and a huge army." "They disembark. carrying a few disassembled ships with them." "to cross the River Euphrates." "Gathering on the far side of the river." "the Egyptian soldiers prepare for war." "But the great battle the Egyptians geared up for never happens." "The Mitanni have retreated into the Asian plains." "Thutmose destroys their cities." "staking his territory and declaring victory." "His war diaries end soon after his Euphrates campaign." "A royal stele on the Euphrates shore marks the furthest boundary of his empire." "Thutmose has reached the geographical limits of his military power." "Egypt too will never reach further." "At last." "Thutmose and his soldiers can return home." "No Egyptian wants to live here." "so far from Egypt." "The Nile is the centre of their world." "Paradise on earth." "And so this ancient superpower kept mainly to itself." "expanding only when it was reasonable and necessary." "Thutmose lll seems to exemplify that old Egyptian interest in surrounding territories as a sphere of influence only." "Not a formal empire but just a sphere of influence in which the Egyptian messenger can go and tell the local chief" ""l want so and so." "You have to comply with Pharaoh's wishes."" "And the chief will say "Yes. sir. yes. sir" and do so." "Once again." "Thutmose returns to Thebes in triumph." "expanding the Egyptian sphere of influence as never before." "No pharaoh's power had ever been greater." "Thutmose has accomplished his life's work and banished the danger of foreign domination." "To thank the gods for his victories." "he extends the Temple of Karnak." "And he decorates the walls with images of the exotic animals and plants he discovered on his campaigns." "Like all of his ancestors." "Thutmose is portrayed in the temple reliefs as the conqueror of Egypt's enemies." "But he was more than that." "He used his victories to link Egypt with the outside world for the first time in 1 500 years." "During the New Kingdom. when Egypt became a much more international power and extended its authority far into western Asia." "into the Mediterranean." "into the Sudan." "this gradually changed." "Egypt became much more aware of foreigners and became more accepting of them." "Thutmose is remembered as the greatest Egyptian general and as an astute politician." "His 54-year reign over 3 million people was unprecedented and brilliant." "By understanding the limits to foreign conquest." "Thutmose made Egypt more stable and secure than ever before." "Egypt could now enter its Golden Age." "Subtitles SBS Australia 201 1"