"Annenberg Media" "¶" "IN A GAME OF ICE HOCKEY," "SCORING THREE GOALS IN ONE GAME IS CALLED A HAT TRICK." "I'D LIKE TO PULL OFF A HAT TRICK TODAY." "I'D LIKE TO TELL YOU WHAT AN ELECTRIC FIELD IS," "SOLVE A PROBLEM IN FIELD THEORY" "THAT ISAAC NEWTON HAD A GREAT DEAL OF TROUBLE WITH," "AND INTRODUCE AN IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL IDEA" "KNOWN AS GAUSS' LAW." "THAT WILL BE EASIER THAN IT SOUNDS" "BECAUSE OF THE VIVID IMAGINATION OF A GENIUS" "NAMED MICHAEL FARADAY." "FARADAY'S LIFE WOULD HAVE EMBARRASSED" "THE MOST SHAMELESS NOVELIST." "HE BEGAN IN THE MOST MODEST CIRCUMSTANCES." "HE HAD LITTLE FORMAL EDUCATION." "HE EVENTUALLY WOUND UP BEING APPRENTICED" "TO BECOME A BOOKBINDER." "HE WAS INTENT ON SELF-IMPROVEMENT" "AND STARTED ATTENDING PUBLIC SCIENTIFIC LECTURES" "AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION IN LONDON." "HE WAS SO ENTHRALLED BY THOSE LECTURES" "THAT HE BEGGED FOR THE CHANCE" "TO DO THE MOST MENIAL WORK AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION." "HE EVENTUALLY WOUND UP" "AS THE PROFESSOR OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION" "AND THE MOST FAMOUS SCIENTIST IN EUROPE." "THROUGHOUT HIS CAREER," "FARADAY UNDERSTOOD MATHEMATICS SO POORLY" "THAT HE COULDN'T READ THE SCIENTIFIC PAPERS" "OF HIS OWN COMPETITORS." "YET HE HAD AN INTUITION THAT GOT HIM TO THE CORE" "OF EVERY SCIENTIFIC PROBLEM." "IT'S ONE OF THE GREATEST IDEAS THAT FLOWED FROM THAT INTUITION" "THAT WE WANT TO DISCUSS." "IT'S THE IDEA OF LINES OF CONSTANT ELECTRIC FORCE" "RADIATING EVERYWHERE THROUGHOUT SPACE." "IN THE FIELD OF PHYSICS," "SURELY NO TOOL HAS DUG UP MORE SCIENTIFIC TRUTH" "THAN THE SHARP SPADE OF MATHEMATICS." "YET WHEN HE UNCOVERED THE FIELD THEORY," "THE GROUNDWORK FROM WHICH MUCH OF MODERN PHYSICS GROWS," "MATHEMATICS WAS A TOOL" "THAT MICHAEL FARADAY HAD TO WORK WITHOUT," "BUT HE WAS EXPOSED TO ONE IDEA" "THAT WAS ESSENTIALLY MATHEMATICAL IN NATURE." "IN 1789," "CHARLES AUGUSTIN COULOUMB CONFIRMED" "WHAT THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY HAD SUSPECTED FOR YEARS." "COULOUMB FINALLY DEMONSTRATED" "THAT THE ELECTRIC FORCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL" "TO THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CHARGES." "AS ELEGANT AS COULOUMB'S EXPERIMENT WAS," "THE CONCEPT," "THE IDEA OF THE INVERSE SQUARE RELATION," "HAD BEEN A MAJOR SCIENTIFIC NOTION" "FOR SOME TIME." "A CENTURY EARLIER, IN FACT," "ISAAC NEWTON'S THEORY STATED THAT THE FALL OF AN APPLE" "AND THE ORBIT OF THE MOON" "WERE BOTH CONSEQUENCES OF THE SAME BASIC LAWS." "ONE OF THOSE LAWS," "THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION," "STATES THAT ANY TWO MASSES ATTRACT EACH OTHER" "WITH A FORCE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL" "TO THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THEM." "THIS WAS A DIFFICULT LAW TO APPLY," "EVEN FOR ISAAC NEWTON HIMSELF." "TO MAKE THE POINT," "HE'D HAVE TO SHOW" "THAT WHEN AN OBJECT'S ATTRACTED TO THE EARTH," "IT ACTS AS IF ALL OF THE EARTH'S MASS" "WERE CONCENTRATED AT THE CENTER." "AND MORE DIFFICULT, HE'D HAVE TO RATIONALIZE" "WHAT HE CALLED "ACTION AT A DISTANCE,"" "A PHRASE MEANING" "THAT SUCH BODIES AS THE EARTH AND THE SUN" "APPLY FORCES DIRECTLY TO EACH OTHER" "EVEN THOUGH THEY'RE SEPARATED MY MILLIONS OF KILOMETERS" "WITH NO TANGIBLE CONNECTION BETWEEN THEM." "THOUGH THE GREAT GENIUS WAS OFTEN TESTY," "EVEN HE HIMSELF MIGHT HAVE COME TO ADMIT" "A CERTAIN DISSATISFACTION" "WITH THE IDEA OF ACTION AT A DISTANCE." "PERHAPS SOMEWHAT DEFENSIVELY IN THE PRINCIPIA, NEWTON WROTE," ""I HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO DISCOVER" ""THE CAUSE OF THOSE PROPERTIES OF GRAVITY," "AND I FEIGN NO HYPOTHESIS."" "WITH THAT FAMOUS PHRASE, "I FEIGN NO HYPOTHESIS,"" "NEWTON FELT NO OBLIGATION TO EXPLAIN" "BY EITHER PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL MEANS" "THE LAW OF GRAVITY." ""TO US IT IS ENOUGH" "THAT GRAVITY DOES REALLY EXIST," HE ADDED," ""AND ACT ACCORDING TO THE LAWS WHICH WE HAVE EXPLAINED."" "OBVIOUSLY, THAT WAS ENOUGH." "IN ENGLAND THEREAFTER," "THE LAW OF GRAVITATION WAS THE LAW OF THE LAND." "BY THE 19th CENTURY," "WITH THE LAW OF GRAVITATION FIRMLY ESTABLISHED," "NEWTON'S FOLLOWERS HAD DISCOVERED" "THAT ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM OBEY SIMILAR LAWS." "IN ALL OF THEM," "THE FORCE DECREASES" "WITH THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE." "THE SIMILARITY IS AMAZING." "THE QUESTION IS, WHY?" "PERHAPS BECAUSE THE INVERSE-SQUARE LAW" "IS RELATED TO A SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL PROPERTY" "OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE" "AND PERHAPS BECAUSE THESE FORCES" "AREN'T THE ONLY THINGS THAT DIMINISH" "WITH THE SQUARE OF DISTANCE." "THEESSENSE OFTHEINVERSE-SQUARELAW" "CANBESEEN INTHECONCEPTOFFLUX ," "THE LATIN WORD MEANING FLOW." "LIGHT FLOWS OUT FROM THE SUN EQUALLY IN ALL DIRECTIONS." "ASITSPREADSOUT , GETTING FARTHER FROM THE SUN," "ITSINTENSITYDECREASES." "BUTIMAGINEASPHERE ENCLOSINGTHESUN." "ALLTHELIGHTWOULD PASSTHROUGHTHESPHERE," "NO MATTER WHAT ITS DISTANCE FROMTHESUN." "ANDTHEAREAOFA SPHEREGROWS  ASTHESQUAREOFITSRADIUS." "SO THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT ENERGY PERUNITAREADECREASES" "ASTHESQUAREOFTHEDISTANCE." "THE INVERSE-SQUARE LAW WASN'T THE ONLY PROVOCATIVE IDEA" "TO WHICH FARADAY WAS EXPOSED AS A YOUNG MAN." "BY 1810," "HE WAS A REGULAR VISITOR AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION," "PARTICULARLY AT THE LECTURES" "OF THE INSTITUTION'S LEGENDARY PROFESSOR" "SIR HUMPHREY DAVY." "CHEMIST AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHER, A SCHOLAR WHO WAS KNIGHTED," "MADE A BARONET," "AND PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY," "DAVY WAS THE VERY CREST OF BRITISH SCIENCE." "WITH HIS OWN RESEARCH AS THE SUBJECT," "DAVY SPOKE AS THE WORLD'S AUTHORITY" "ON EVERY ELEMENT FROM SODIUM TO POTASSIUM," "CHLORINE TO IODINE." "DAVY BECAME A SCIENTIFIC FATHER FIGURE" "FOR FARADAY" "AND REMAINED A MENTOR AND ENORMOUS INFLUENCE" "FOR ALMOST 20 YEARS," "ALTHOUGH THE RELATIONSHIP WAS, AT TIMES, A ROCKY ONE." "UNDER DAVY'S INFLUENCE, IN THE GOLDEN AGE OF CHEMISTRY," "NONE SHONE BRIGHTER THAN MICHAEL FARADAY." "HE DISCOVERED BENZENE, LIQUEFIED CHLORINE GAS," "AND DEVELOPED NEW ALLOYS OF STEEL." "THE LIST OF HIS REMARKABLE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AS A CHEMIST" "GOES ON AND ON." "NONETHELESS, IN 1821," "FARADAY SET ASIDE HIS WORK IN CHEMISTY." "IN THAT YEAR, OERSTED DISCOVERED" "THE EFFECT ELECTRIC CURRENT HAS ON MAGNETS." "WHILE THAT EFFECT CAN BE SEEN CLEARLY NOW," "IN 1821, IT WAS STILL A GREAT SCIENTIFIC MYSTERY." "INDEED, WHY WOULD THE COMPASS NEEDLE" "LINE UP PERPENDICULAR TO THE ELECTRIC CURRENT?" "SPARKED BY CURIOSITY TO BEGIN WITH" "AND ASKED BY AN EDITOR TO WRITE AN ARTICLE" "THAT WOULD END THE SCIENTIFIC CONFUSION," "FARADAY SET OUT" "TO SOLVE THE MYSTERY FOR HIMSELF." "FARADAY SAW THE POSSIBILITY" "OF HARNESSING THE FORCE OF AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT" "AND INVENTED A DEVICE TO DO IT." "THAT DEVICE HAPPENED TO BE THE FIRST ELECTRIC MOTOR." "HOW DID MICHAEL FARADAY MANAGE THAT?" "PERHAPS BECAUSE, BEING UNABLE TO ANALYZE THEM MATHEMATICALLY," "FARADAY WAS ABLE TO TAKE THESE CIRCULAR MAGNETIC FORCES" "AT FACE VALUE." "IN ANY CASE, TO MICHAEL FARADAY," "ELECTRICITY, AS WELL AS MAGNETISM," "APPLIED REAL FORCES IN SPACE." "HE BEGAN HIS STUDY OF THEM WITH A NUMBER OF ASSUMPTIONS." "ANYWHERE IN THE VICINITY OF AN ELECTRIC CHARGE," "A SMALL TEST CHARGE EXPERIENCES A FORCE." "IF IT'S DUE TO ONLY ONE CHARGE," "THE PATTERN OF FORCES DETECTED BY THE TEST CHARGE" "IS SIMPLE." "THE PATTERN'S MORE COMPLEX FOR TWO OPPOSITE CHARGES..." "OR FOR TWO CHARGES OF THE SAME SIGN..." "AND MORE COMPLEX STILL" "FOR MORE COMPLICATED ARRANGEMENTS." "BUT IN ANY CASE, HERE'S THE POINT." "EVEN IF THE TEST CHARGE ISN'T THERE TO FEEL IT," "THE PATTERN OF FORCES CAN BE IMAGINED TO EXIST" "EVERYWHERE IN SPACE." "THIS IS THE ESSENCE OF THE IDEA OF THE FIELD." "AND ALTHOUGH FARADAY ONLY IMAGINED IT," "THE FIELD CAN ALSO BE EXPRESSED MATHEMATICALLY." "THEFORCETHATACTS ONA TESTCHARGE" "ATEACHPOINTINSPACE" "ISEQUALTO THETESTCHARGE" "TIMESA QUANTITY DUEONLYTO THEOTHERCHARGES." "THATQUANTITYIS  THEELECTRICFIELD." "FARADAY NEVER ARRIVED" "AT THAT DEFINITION OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD," "BUT BY SEEING BOTH ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PHENOMENA" "AS FORCES IN SPACE," "HE MANAGED TO SEE FURTHER THAN HIS PEERS." "AS A RESULT OF THIS AND MANY OTHER DISCOVERIES," "HE EVENTUALLY BECAME DIRECTOR OF THE RESEARCH LABORATORY" "AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION," "AND, SUCCEEDING DAVY, HE BECAME THE PROFESSOR THERE," "AS WELL AS A MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY." "IT WAS AS RESEARCHER RATHER THAN INSTRUCTOR" "THAT HE SAW DEEPER AND DEEPER" "INTO THE INVISIBLE FORCES OF SPACE." "TO FARADAY, THE 1/R-SQUARED FORCE" "BETWEEN ELECTRIC CHARGES" "SUGGESTED THAT THE FORCE MUST BE APPLIED" "BY SOMETHING RADIATING OUTWARD FROM CHARGES," "SOMETHING WHICH, LIKE LIGHT FROM THE SUN," "NEVER STOPS AND NEVER ENDS IN SPACE." "AS FARADAY IMAGINED IT," "THIS SOMETHING WOULD BE LINES OR TUBES," "EACH ONE CAPABLE OF APPLYING A FORCE" "TO ANY CHARGE IN ITS PATH." "THESE LINES OF FORCE WOULD BEGIN ONLY ON POSITIVE CHARGES" "AND END ONLY ON NEGATIVE ONES." "AND THEY WOULD FLOW SMOOTHLY THROUGH SPACE," "NEVER CROSSING OR TANGLING." "NO MATTER THE CONFIGURATION," "THE CHARGES WOULD HAVE" "A CHARACTERISTIC PATTERN OF LINES." "THE FORCE THEY APPLY WOULD BE STRONG" "NEAR THE CHARGES WHERE THE LINES ARE CROWDED TOGETHER" "AND WEAK FAR FROM THE CHARGES," "WHERE THE LINES ARE FARTHER APART." "THE ABILITY TO APPLY A FORCE RESIDES AT EACH POINT IN SPACE." "THE FORCE ARISES FROM THE INTENSITY OF LINES" "REGARDLESS OF THE LOCATION OF THE CHARGES THAT CREATE THEM." "EVEN WITHOUT SUCH SPACE-AGE GRAPHICS," "THIS IS HOW FARADAY PICTURED THE ELECTRIC FIELD." "IT STILL SEEMS THE MOST GRAPHIC WAY" "TO VISUALIZE ONE." "SATISFYING THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY" "WOULD TAKE ANOTHER STEP OR TWO." "NECESSARILY, THOSE STEPS WOULD BE MATHEMATICAL." "ONE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT WAS TAKEN" "BY KARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS." "PHYSICIST..." "ASTRONOMER..." "AND PERHAPS THE BEST MATHEMATICIAN" "OF ALL TIME." "GAUSS' MATHEMATICS WOULD OFFER AN ELEGANT COMPLEMENT" "TO FARADAY'S IDEA," "AND IT WOULD BECOME LAW." "IN FARADAY'S TERMS," "FLUX IS REPRESENTED BY ALL THE LINES OF FORCE" "PASSING THROUGH ANY SURFACE." "GAUSS'LAWSTATES THAT FOR ANY CLOSED SURFACE," "THETOTALFLUXISPROPORTIONAL" "TOTHENETELECTRICCHARGE INSIDE." "IFTHERE'SNO NETCHARGE INSIDEA SURFACE," "ANYPOSITIVEFLUXOUTWARD THROUGHIT" "MUSTBEBALANCED" "BYANEQUALAMOUNT OF INWARD, OR NEGATIVE, FLUX." "GAUSS' LAW," "WHICH GIVES MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION" "TO FARADAY'S INTUITIVE NOTION" "ABOUT THE ELECTRIC FIELD," "IS ACTUALLY AN EXPRESSION" "OF THE GEOMETRIC MEANING" "OF ANY INVERSE-SQUARED LAW." "IN APPROPRIATE FORM," "IT APPLIES NOT ONLY" "TO ELECTRIC FIELDS," "BUT TO GRAVITATIONAL" "AND MAGNETIC FIELDS AS WELL," "AND EVEN TO LIGHT FLOWING FROM THE SUN." "IN ANY EVENT," "GAUSS' THEORETICAL WORK" "COMBINED WITH FARADAY'S COMMON SENSE" "REVEALS A NUMBER OF AMAZING FACTS" "ABOUT NATURE ITSELF." "FOR EXAMPLE, WATCH WHAT HAPPENS INSIDE A CONDUCTOR" "WHERE A LATTICE OF POSITIVE IONS IS NEUTRALIZED" "BY MOBILE AND CONSTANTLY MOVING ELECTRONS." "ANELECTRICFIELD PASSINGTHROUGHACONDUCTOR" "FORCES THE ELECTRONS TO FLOW" "UNTILTHEYPILEUP ATTHESURFACE," "REPELLINGTHEMOTION OFFURTHERELECTRONS." "BUTTHATMEANS THEELECTRICFIELD" "INSIDEANYCONDUCTOR" "BECOMESEQUALTO ZERO" "WHENELECTROSTATICEQUILIBRIUM ISESTABLISHED." "THEREFORE, A CLOSED SURFACE INSIDETHECONDUCTOR" "HASNOFLUXTHROUGHIT." "SOTHENETCHARGEINSIDE MUSTBEZERO," "BUTTHERECANBECHARGE ATTHESURFACE," "AND NO MATTER WHAT'S OUTSIDE," "THESURFACECHARGE MAKESTHEFIELDINSIDE" "EQUALTOZERO." "AND SINCE ALL THE ACTION'S AT THE SURFACE," "A METAL BOX OF ANY SORT," "EVEN A FLIMSY, SCREEN-COVERED CAGE," "CAN KEEP OUT AN ELECTRIC FIELD." "THAT FACT CAN BE DEMONSTRATED WITH THIS DEVICE," "A GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE." "NOTICE HOW IT RESPONDS" "TO THE FIELD OF AN ELECTRIC CHARGE." "NOTICE, TOO, THAT EVEN WHEN" "AN ELECTROSCOPE'S INSIDE THE CAGE," "IT REACTS IN THE SAME FASHION." "HOWEVER, WHEN THE BOX IS ENCLOSED," "AN ELECTRIC FIELD CAN'T ENTER TO DISTURB THE GOLD LEAF." "ANY METAL BOX CAN DO IT." "AND TO THIS DAY," "ANY METAL BOX THAT DOES DO IT" "IS CALLED A FARADAY CAGE." "NOT EVERY FARADAY CAGE" "WAS DESIGNED TO PROTECT ITS CONTENTS" "FROM ELECTRIC FIELDS." "[RADIO PLAYING]" "THE STEEL GIRDERS OF A BRIDGE OR THE SCAFFOLDING OF A TUNNEL" "PROBABLY COULDN'T CARE LESS" "ABOUT KEEPING ELECTRIC FIELDS AT BAY," "BUT THEY DO A PRETTY EFFECTIVE JOB OF IT." "WHY?" "BECAUSE RADIO WAVES" "ARE A KIND OF DISTURBANCE IN THE ELECTRIC FIELD" "AND BECAUSE, WHETHER IT'S A BRIDGE" "OR THE ENCLOSED CONTAINER THAT ITS NAME IMPLIES," "A FARADAY CAGE ISN'T A GREAT PLACE" "TO GET GOOD RECEPTION." "[MUSIC FADES]" "[MUSIC PLAYING]" "OUTSIDE AGAIN, THE RECEPTION'S FINE." "IN ANY CASE, WHILE CARS CAN GO JUST ABOUT ANYWHERE," "WHERE CAN THE LINES" "OF A UNIFORM SPHERE OF CHARGE GO?" "AN EXTENDED REGION OF CHARGE" "MIGHTCONSIST OF MANY POINT CHARGES IN SPACE." "BUTIFIT 'SSYMMETRICAL," "THEELECTRICFIELDHAS ONLY ONEPLACETO GO ," "ANDTHAT'SOUTWARD." "ACCORDINGTOGAUSS'LAW ," "THEFLUXTHROUGH ACLOSEDSURFACEOUTSIDE" "DEPENDSONLY ONTHETOTALCHARGE." "IFTHECHARGEDREGION ISA SPHERE," "THE SIZE MAKES NO DIFFERENCE." "SO, IN OTHER WORDS," "THE ELECTRIC FIELD OUTSIDE IS THE SAME," "WHETHER THE CHARGE IS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED" "IN A SPHERE" "OR CONCENTRATED AT A POINT AT THE CENTER." "BY THE SAME REASONING," "BECAUSE IT DEPENDS ONLY ON ITS INVERSE-SQUARE NATURE," "THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF THE EARTH IS THE SAME" "AS IF ALL ITS MASS WERE CONCENTRATED AT THE CENTER." "ISAAC NEWTON HAD TO USE HIS MOST POWERFUL MATHEMATICS" "TO PROVE THAT POINT," "WHICH MAY HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE 20-YEAR DELAY" "IN THE PUBLICATION OF THE PRINCIPIA," "BUT WITH THE HELP" "OF MICHAEL FARADAY'S VIVID MENTAL PICTURE," "THE REASON BEHIND THE IDEA CAN BE PERCEIVED" "AND COMPLETELY GRASPED" "WITHOUT ANY MATHEMATICS WHATSOEVER." "NOT THAT MATHEMATICS WOULDN'T APPLY." "AFTER ALL, IN THE END," "THE BEST SCIENTIFIC EXPRESSION OF FARADAY'S IDEAS," "INDEED, THE ULTIMATE TRIUMPH" "OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY" "WOULD BE THE MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION" "OF JAMES CLERK MAXWELL." "FARADAY WOULD COME TO ADMIRE MAXWELL," "AND, QUITE PROPERLY," "THE ADMIRATION WOULD GO BOTH WAYS." "RESPONDING TO A LETTER FROM FARADAY, MAXWELL WROTE," ""YOU ARE THE FIRST PERSON" ""IN WHOM THE IDEA OF BODIES ACTING AT A DISTANCE" ""HAS ARISEN AS A PRINCIPLE TO BE ACTUALLY BELIEVED IN." ""NOTHING IS CLEARER THAN YOUR DESCRIPTIONS." ""YOU SEEM TO SEE THE LINES OF FORCE" ""CURVING ROUND OBSTACLES AND DRIVING PLUMB AT CONDUCTORS" ""AND SWERVING TOWARDS CERTAIN DIRECTIONS" ""IN CRYSTALS" ""AND CARRYING WITH THEM EVERYWHERE" ""THE SAME AMOUNT OF ATTRACTIVE POWER" "SPREAD WIDER OR DENSER AS THE LINES WIDEN OR CONTRACT."" "THINKING OF GRAVITY AS WELL AS ELECTRICITY," "MAXWELL CONCLUDED," ""YOUR LINES OF FORCE CAN WEAVE A WEB ACROSS THE SKY" "AND LEAD THE STARS IN THEIR COURSES."" "SO FARADAY HAD THIS IDEA" "ABOUT LINES OF FORCE FILLING ALL OF SPACE." "THERE'S NO DOUBT THAT FARADAY BELIEVED" "THAT THOSE LINES WERE REALLY THERE." "THEN ALONG CAME JAMES CLERK MAXWELL." "HE TRANSMUTED FARADAY'S IDEA" "INTO OUR MODERN VIEW OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD." "ONCE THAT WAS DONE," "FARADAY'S LINES OF FORCE NO LONGER EXISTED." "A REASONABLE QUESTION YOU MIGHT ASK IS," "WHY DO WE BOTHER TEACHING YOU" "SOMETHING WE NO LONGER BELIEVE TO BE TRUE?" "YOU MIGHT GET SOME PERSPECTIVE ON THAT QUESTION" "BY CONSIDERING SOMETHING IN TODAY'S SCIENCE." "WE KNOW THAT THE NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM" "IS MADE UP OF SMALLER PARTICLES CALLED PROTONS AND NEUTRONS." "WE CAN SMASH THE NUCLEUS APART" "AND GET OUT THE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS" "AND STUDY THEM, SO WE KNOW THEY'RE REAL." "WE ALSO BELIEVE TODAY" "THAT PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ARE MADE UP" "OF EVEN SMALLER INNER CONSTITUENTS" "WHICH ARE CALLED QUARKS," "BUT IT'S IMPOSSIBLE TO SMASH A PROTON APART" "AND GET OUT THE INDIVIDUAL QUARKS." "THE QUARKS ARE FOREVER HIDDEN" "INSIDE OF THE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS." "THE QUESTION THAT ARISES IN VIEW OF THAT" "ARE QUARKS REAL?" "THAT QUESTION IS VERY SIMILIAR TO THE QUESTION" "OF WHETHER FARADAY'S LINES OF FORCE ARE REAL." "IN THE LONG RUN," "IT MAY TURN OUT TO BE IRRELEVANT." "FARADAY'S LINES OF FORCE WERE A MENTAL SCAFFOLDING" "THAT HAD TO BE PUT UP" "IN ORDER TO BUILD THE FINAL EDIFICE" "WHICH WAS THE ELECTRIC FIELD." "ONCE THE BUILDING IS FINISHED," "THE SCAFFOLDING CAN BE TORN DOWN," "BUT THAT MAKES IT NO LESS IMPORTANT" "BECAUSE THE BUILDING COULDN'T HAVE BEEN CONSTRUCTED" "WITHOUT THE SCAFFOLDING." "SOMEDAY, IT MAY TURN OUT THAT EVEN THE IDEA OF QUARKS," "WHICH TODAY'S SCIENTISTS CERTAINLY BELIEVE ARE REAL," "TURNED OUT TO BE" "JUST A KIND OF MENTAL SCAFFOLDING." "WE'LL GET ON WITH STUDYING" "THE FINAL EDIFICE OF ELECTRIC THEORY" "WHEN WE MEET NEXT TIME." "CAPTIONING IS MADE POSSIBLE BY THE ANNENBERG/CPB PROJECT" "CAPTIONING PERFORMED BY THE NATIONAL CAPTIONING INSTITUTE, INC." "CAPTIONS COPYRIGHT 1986 CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY," "THE CORPORATIONS FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE TELEVISION, THE ANNENBERG/CPB PROJECT" "PUBLIC PERFORMANCE OF CAPTIONS PROHIBITED WITHOUT PERMISSION OF NATIONAL CAPTIONING INSTITUTE" "Annenberg Media" "¶" "For information about this and other Annenberg Media programs call 1-800-LEARNER and visit us at"