"BATTLEFIELD VIETNAM" "Air War Vietnam" "From February 1965 to November 1968, the United States waged a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam." "Operation Rolling Thunder sent American warplanes against heavily defended targets." "It was a destructive and costly battle as both sides used ever more sophisticated weapons and tactics." "In Rolling Thunder, American aircraft dropped over 650,000 tons of bombs on North Vietnam." "There were also massive operations in South Vietnam supporting American ground troops and against communist supply lines and bases in Laos and Cambodia." "The air war in South East Asia was more than a contest between United States and North Vietnam." "From the start America's cold war enemies, China and the Soviet Union, were backing the North with weapons, advisors and support personnel." "For U.S. leaders, that raised the most difficult question they had ever faced." "Could the air war be won without sparking off a wider and infinitely more dangerous conflict?" "PRELUDE TO THE BATTLE" "The United States Air Force began its war in South East Asia... more than three years before American combat troops set foot in Vietnam." "In late 1961 president John F. Kennedy ordered more help for the South Vietnamese government in its war against the Vietcong guerrillas." "U.S. backing included new equipment, and more than 3,000 military advisors and support personnel." "Soon, U.S. Army and Marine helicopters were flying South Vietnamese government soldiers and their American advisors into combat against the Vietcong." "U.S. Air Force transport planes helped with troop deployments and supplies." "Meanwhile, reconnaissance aircraft searched for guerrilla units and interceptors defended South Vietnamese air space against North Vietnamese or even possibly Soviet or Chinese intruders." "Amongst the first U.S. Air Force units sent to Vietnam... was a small detachment of helicopters disguised in South Vietnamese markings." "Under special rules of engagement, codenamed Farm Gate, ...the aircraft were flown by U.S. personnel but had to have a South Vietnamese Air Force officer on board." "Unofficially, they were flying combat missions against the NLF." "In spite of American efforts, the NLF inflicted a series of defeats on the South Vietnamese Army in 1963." "Guerrilla numbers were rising and were better armed and led than ever." "With each month that passed, the NLF was getting more weapons, ammunition and trained men from North Vietnam." "The main supply route from North Vietnam, the Ho Chi Minh trail, ran inside Laos and Cambodia to the NLF's base areas in the South." "The trail was manned by North Vietnamese Army troops with the help of Laotian guerrillas who were waging their own war against the Lao government." "The NLF guerrillas were concentrating in the Mekong delta, around Saigon and in the Central and Northern parts of Vietnam." "It was near these areas that the Americans stationed helicopter companies to carry South Vietnamese troops into battle." "The detachment operating under Farm Gate was based at Bien Hoa, near Saigon ...and there was another important base at Tan Son Nhut." "Three smaller airfields also supported fixed wing operations." "By the end of 1963, Farm Gate pilots, soon known as Air Commandos, were flying more than 80 missions a week." "They attacked Vietcong base areas and river traffic... and were credited with killing hundreds, maybe thousands of guerrillas." "Operation Ranch Hand flights spraying a deadly herbicide... to destroy jungle cover, were also flown under Farm Gate rules." "The spraying, which began in early 1962, cleared the vegetation alongside highways." "Vietcong ambushes would then be far easier to spot." "Ranch Hand missions were soon extended beyond preventing ambushes." "Vast tracts of forest were sprayed with agent orange, a herbicide containing the deadly chemical dioxin." "Guerrilla trails and base areas were exposed and crops that might feed Vietcong units, were destroyed." "By the summer of 1971, operation Ranch Hand had sprayed... 11 million gallons of agent orange, containing 240 pounds of dioxin and destroyed 6 million acres of South Vietnam." "1/7 of the country's total area was laid waste." "Herbicides containing dioxin were banned for use in the U.S." "...by the department of agriculture in 1968." "In Vietnam, the spraying continued until 1971." "YANKEE TEAM" "Between April and June 1964, American air power in Southeast Asia was massively reinforced." "Two aircraft carriers arrived off the Vietnamese coast." "The move was prompted by an NVA offensive in Laos." "To help Laotian government forces, U.S. aircraft mounted a big reconnaissance effort, codenamed Operation Yankee Team." "Soon after Yankee Team began, two navy planes were lost to anti aircraft fire over Laos." "The air force retaliated by hitting the enemy gun positions in the first jet bombing raids in Southeast Asia." "As well as photographing the activities of the Laotian guerrillas," "American aircraft over Laos were monitoring the Ho Chi Minh trail." "It was clear that North Vietnam was sending more men and supplies to the Southern guerrillas than ever before." "In Washington, the new U.S. president Lyndon Johnson, ...was being pressed hard by his military commanders to punish the North." "So far Johnson had refused to sanction official direct attacks on North Vietnam." "However, covert attacks were being conducted over Vietnam near the Laotian border." "It was an incident in the Tonkin gulf that finally lit the fuse." "In bad weather conditions the captain of an American destroyer... thought he was fired upon by North Vietnamese patrol boats, ...an attack that actually never happened." "But on August 5th 1964, the president ordered retaliation." "Operation Pierce Arrow was launched by the carriers Ticonderoga and Constellation." "Aircraft from Constellation bombed North Vietnamese naval facilities at Hon Gai and Loc Chau, with the loss of two American aircraft." "Fuel storage tanks, and a patrol boat base at Vinh and another base at Quang Khe were attacked by aircraft from Ticonderoga." "Later, a follow up strike completed the devastation at Vinh." "In North Vietnam the American bombing raids immediately triggered a secret plan." "For years, the North had been creating an Air Force with Soviet built jet fighters." "The force had been based in China." "The day after the American bombings, the fighters were called home." "Even as the North Vietnamese fighters began to patrol out of the new base, the Americans rushed their own reinforcements to the region." "The Air Force deployed more than 70 planes to Vietnam and Thailand." "The Navy sent two more carriers steaming towards the gulf of Tonkin." "As tension in Southeast Asia rose sharply," "U.S. intelligence learned of an ominous development." "In October 1964, China, Vietnam's neighbor and ally, successfully tested an atomic bomb." "In the closing weeks of 1964, American aircraft launched a new campaign in Southeast Asia." "The aim was to find and destroy North Vietnamese transport and installations on the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos." "For the Americans, operation Barrel Roll was the start of an attempt to cut off supplies to the NLF that would last for a full 8 years." "By February 8th 1965, NLF guerrillas in South Vietnam had launched a series of attacks on U.S. installations and personnel." "The United States was determined to hold North Vietnam responsible." "Carrier aircraft had been kept ready to retaliate if the president gave the order." "On February 7th 1965, they were unleashed against North Vietnamese targets." "Operation Flaming Dart was launched from the carriers..." "Ranger, Hancock and Coral Sea and from air fields in South Vietnam by both U.S. and South Vietnamese planes." "The targets were North Vietnamese Army barracks and the 325th Infantry Division training base at Dong Hoi." "Because of bad weather, only one target was hit in strength... at the cost of an aircraft shot down." "In the next five days, more retaliation raids again hit army barracks." "Three American aircraft were lost." "Up to now, the American air strikes on the North had been in retaliation for particular incidents." "However many in Washington believed that bombing should have a much bigger role to play." "They argued a sustained campaign of attacks could make North Vietnam stop supporting the war in the South." "Military planners had long ago been given permission to prepare a major bombing offensive." "It was codenamed Operation Rolling Thunder." "On February 13th 1965, the White House gave the 'go ahead'." "Two weeks later, on March 2nd after a series of delays the Americans launched the first raid of the new campaign." "The initial plan was to launch two or three strikes every week." "But by March 19th, with Rolling Thunder 7, ...the air strikes became a sustained and regular effort." "Rolling Thunder got off to an uncertain start." "The first mission, flown by more than 100 aircraft hit an ammunition dump in the Quang Khe naval base." "Five U.S. aircraft were lost." "In the following weeks, North Vietnamese Radars, reilway bridges and military bases were attacked, but more American aircraft were shot down." "Already, it looked like an air war over North Vietnam might prove far more costly than anyone had expected." "THE LEADERS – United States" "The American President, Lyndon Johnson, doubted that bombing North Vietnam would be enough to save the South." "By now, he was resigned to using American troops to fight the guerrillas." "The first combat units had already landed." "Johnson's biggest worry, shared by his defense secretary Robert McNamara, was that bombing North Vietnam might spark off a much bigger war." "The Soviet Union and China had been supporting the North... with financial and military aid for years." "If the American bombing was too fierce they might be forced to come to its defense." "After that, anything could happen." "Johnson's fears that the war in Vietnam could spiral out of control were not shared by his military leaders." "The Joint Chiefs of Staff did not believe that the Chinese or the Soviets would intervene no matter how hard the U.S. hit the North." "What they wanted was a quick and devastating campaign." "Whatever the doubts of his military leaders, Johnson was sure that massive bombing of North Vietnam would draw in the Chinese." "The only course the president could see was to keep strict control of the offensive himself." "Each week, the list of targets to be struck, would have to be approved by him at the White House." "THE LEADERS – North Vietnam / China" "The first American bombing raids had come as a severe shock to the leaders of North Vietnam." "Neither the president, Ho Chi Minh, nor his government had expected the Americans to go so far, but there was no question of giving in." "On April 8th 1965, Premier Pham Van Dong, replied to a peace overture from the American president with his own list of uncompromising demands." "For ten years Ho Chi Minh's aim had been to reunite the two halves of Vietnam under communist rule." "Now, the NLF guerrillas in the South were so close to victory he saw no reason why he should negotiate." "The problem was, if the North were bombed into oblivion, or invaded by American and South Vietnamese forces, all would be lost." "Only with massive help from the Soviet Union and China could North Vietnam hope to survive." "The two superpowers had already given nearly a billion dollars worth of aid over ten years but Ho was appealing urgently for more." "Ho meant to play on the bitter rivalry between the two powers to get all the help he could." "At first the Soviet Union under premier Alexei Kosygin had urged Northern leaders to look for a peaceful solution." "But Kosygin was actually in Hanoi in february 1965 when Rolling Thunder began." "The Russian position hardened." "The Soviets now promised sophisticated radar, air defense missiles and more jet fighters." "China under its leader Mao Tse Tung went much further than the Soviet Union." "Mao promised to send combat infantry if the country were invaded." "Meantime, to help the North defend itself against the bombing, he promised anti aircraft units." "Mao meant to guarantee the survival of his neighbor whatever the risks." "STRATEGY – United States" "From the start, the American bombing offensive against North Vietnam was meant to meet a whole range of different objectives." "The military chiefs, including Admiral Sharp, ...the commander of U.S. Pacific forces, ...wanted to wreck the North's capacity to make war." "The U.S. Ambassador in Saigon, Maxwell Taylor, saw the raids as a morale booster for South Vietnam." "The defense secretary, Robert McNamara, meant them to put on pressure... which could be stepped up gradually until the North agreed to U.S. demands." "The first targets of the Rolling Thunder campaign had been chosen mainly for their political and psychological impact." "However, to justify the mounting toll of lost pilots and aircraft," "McNamara now wanted more concrete results." "He argued that the campaign against North Vietnam should be much more closely linked to the war in the South." "The new American plan for Operation Rolling Thunder... focused on the part of North Vietnam between the Demilitarized Zone, separating North and South, and the 20th parallel." "Inside this area, railway lines, bridges, and a vital railyard at Vinh were all used to send supplies and reinforcements to guerrilla units in the South." "These lines of communication were to be cut in a three week campaign which would steadily move North." "Armed reconnaissance would then destroy the transport trapped by the broken bridges and rail lines." "To U.S. military leaders the decision to attack North Vietnamese transport was a move in the right direction, but it was nowhere near as destructive as the campaign they wanted." "The Joint Chiefs still argued for an all out offensive... to destroy North Vietnam's military centers, air defenses, power stations and ports." "President Johnson and Robert McNamara were adamant that there would be no all out campaign." "This was to be a limited war to achieve limited objectives." "In any case, McNamara and other officials argued, ...the most valuable targets should be kept as hostages." "To save those, North Vietnam would have to agree to negotiate." "STRATEGY – North Vietnam" "When the Rolling Tunder campaign had begun, North Vietnam's leaders had feared that in a very short time their country could be bombed into rubble." "The air defense system was still primitive." "If the Americans meant to launch an all out offensive, there was little the fledgling North Vietnamese air force could do to stop them." "North Vietnam hoped that open support from its allies... particularly the Chinese, could save it from full scale attack." "There was every sign that Chinese meant what they said about coming to the North's aid if necessary." "In fact, China was taking the situation in Vietnam so seriously it had changed its whole National Defense strategy." "Mao Tse Tung had long recognized that by helping North Vietnam he was risking a direct clash with the United States." "He was determined to prepare." "Mao ordered a massive defense program to ensure China could withstand even a nuclear attack by the United States." "He called it 'The Third Front'... and by March 1965, it was already well underway." "The first stage of the 'Third Front' program had been to take Chinese industries, mostly concentrated around the big cities, ...and split them in two." "The duplicates would then move deep into the interior." "Already, fortifications were being built for defense in depth and every province was creating its own light armaments industry." "Meanwhile, North Vietnam's defenses against American bombing... were also being reinforced." "China had already moved four full air divisions and an anti aircraft division to its border with Vietnam." "It built airfields close to the frontier as sanctuary and repair facilities for North Vietnam's jet fighters." "Inside Vietnam, new airfields would be built and old ones repaired." "Chinese logistics teams were already constructing or upgrading 12 roads North of Hanoi." "In North Vietnam, full scale mobilization was being carried out at a frantic pace, many believed that an invasion might follow the air assault." "A million people were organized into repair and construction teams." "In a massive program, they dug thousands of miles of trenches and millions of single person air raid shelters." "Soon, in Hanoi, there would be a shelter on average every 20 feet." "To the leaders of the North, building defenses and acquiring advanced weaponry was only one part of the strategy." "There was also the political battle." "There would be a major propaganda offensive to pressure the Americans into restricting or even stopping their attacks." "THE OPPOSING FORCES – United States" "For more than 20 years, American military planning had given the highest priority to strategic bombers." "The U.S. had built a huge force of long range aircraft able to attack targets deep inside the Soviet Union with nuclear weapons." "As the conflict with North Vietnam had intensified..." "Strategic Air Command had modified its giant B-52's to carry conventional bombs." "Although the B-52's had been stationed ready to attack North Vietnam in the end they had been kept out of Rolling Thunder." "The White House believed that the massive, high altitude bombers were just too destructive." "They could be seen as a massive escalation of the war." "Instead, the smaller and more accurate tactical bombers would fight the strategic campaign against the North." "They would also carry out their normal role by supporting ground operations in South Vietnam." "While the Air Force and Marine aircraft would fly most missions inside South Vietnam, a large part of the strikes against the North would be mounted by the navy." "The U.S. Navy had 16 strike carriers and deployed more aircraft than all the world's other navys combined." "By the end of 1965, 10 different carriers would have taken part in Rolling Thunder operations over North Vietnam." "U.S. naval air power off Vietnam was under the command of Task Force 77." "Its carriers would operate from two areas codenamed Yankee and Dixie stations." "Aircraft from Yankee station would attack targets in North Vietnam and Laos, ...while planes from Dixie would fly over South Vietnam." "American Air Force units were controlled by the 2nd Air Division." "In 1965, the Division operated from two main air fields in Vietnam and five in Thailand." "The 1st Marine Air wing would deploy fighter aircraft at another two airfields in Northern South Vietnam, while B-52 wings of Strategic Air Command operated from Guam, in the Pacific, and later from Thailand with refueling tankers form Okinawa." "U.S. Air commanders had a limited say in how the battle over North Vietnam was fought." "The White House was not only choosing the targets but decided on almost every other detail of each attack." "Washington specified the day and often the time of each mission and sometimes even the type of bombs to be used." "From the approved list, American pilots were given a target and one or two alternatives, only those targets could be attacked." "The monsoon weather were still enveloping North Vietnam making some targets impossible to hit at the time specified in Washington." "Air commanders had no authority to improvise." "WEAPONS – United States" "The main burden of the U.S. Air Force's war against North Vietnam would fall on a single aircraft type." "The F-105 Thunderchief was originally designed as a supersonic long-range nuclear bomber." "The single-seater could carry up to 5 tons of bombs, ...more than a WWII B-17 flying fortress." "As a fighter escort and for light attack, ...the Air Force had the F-100 Supersabre." "The F-100 could carry almost 4 tons of bombs." "It was also armed with air to air missiles and four 20mm cannon." "For bombing missions, the U.S. Navy still relied heavily on the propeller driven Skyraider." "Although the aircraft had been in service more than 20 years and was very slow, it could carry a heavy load of bombs and rockets." "It also had astonishing endurance and was able to stay over a target area for hours at a time." "As Rolling Thunder developed, the Skyraider would be gradually replaced in the Navy's attack squadrons by the A-4 Skyhawk." "The Skyhawk could carry 4 tons of bombs, but it was a slow aircraft, ...able to reach only 670 miles per hour." "Skyhawk raids were usually escorted by Crusader fighters, ...armed with both cannon and air to air missiles." "By April 1965, the American's most versatile aircraft... was already deployed in Southeast Asia by Air Force, Navy and Marine units." "The F-4 Phantom was a big aircraft and was able to fly at more than twice the speed of sound," "1,400 miles per hour." "It could also carry a bomb load of up to 8 tons." "As Phantom units took on a bigger role in the war against North Vietnam, ...one unforeseen shortcoming would soon emerge." "The F-4 had been designed to depend for self defense on its missiles, ...it had never been fitted with cannon for close range air combat." "THE MEN – United States" "Every aircraft deployed by an Air Force fighter wing or a U.S. Navy carrier depended on more than 30 men to keep it flying." "A carrier had a crew of around 4,000 crammed into the ship alongside planes, bombs and stores." "Because the carrier was operating 24 hours a day, the men worked in shifts up to 16 hours long." "In Thailand and South Vietnam, conditions for Air Force personnel were easier." "All the same, heat and humidity took a heavy toll on men and machines." "To add to the burden, higher command often measured the success of a unit by the sheer number of sorties it could fly." "Whether Navy or Air Force, morale was high amongst the air crew who were going into combat over North Vietnam." "Aircraft and pilots had been lost and the enemy's air defenses were still being developed." "The monsoon weather still enveloping the North was often a bigger concern than the anti aircraft guns, so too were the strict rules of engagement that pilots had to memorize." "Washington had ordered that only confirmed military targets could be hit, ...and then never in civilian areas." "Enemy aircraft had to be identified visually before they could be attacked ...in case they were Chinese." "And there was a host of other restrictions." "Such rules had never been part of the training of U.S. pilots." "But crew were left in no doubt that infringements would lead to serious disciplinary action." "THE OPPOSING FORCES – North Vietnam" "The North Vietnamese armed forces fielded 400,000 men in 13 regular divisions." "All divisions had their own anti aircraft guns." "So did the units operating in Laos, ...building and running the Ho Chi Minh trail." "The Navy played a role in air defense too." "Its fleet of East-German gunboats were stationed on the sea and river approaches to important targets." "From its beginnings, the North Vietnamese Air Force was part of the Army." "As well as its planes and a small number of helicopters, the Air Force controlled the Anti Aircraft Command, a specialized anti aircraft artillery formation." "It also controlled and increasingly sophisticated... early warning Radar system supplied by the Soviet Union and China." "North Vietnam's only fighter wing, the 921st, was based at Noi Bai airfield, 40 Km from Hanoi." "A second wing, the 923rd was planned for the airfield being built at Kep." "There was also a training wing, and a wing of Ilyushin bombers at Cat Bi and Phuc Yen." "The anti aircraft gun batteries of the Air Defense Force were organized into 4 brigades... concentrated around areas of strategic importance:" "The main road and rail junctions, the industrial centers around Hanoi and Haiphong, and the main supply routes to Laos and the South... were most heavily defended." "Anti aircraft units were also deployed... along the irrigation system of the Red River valley." "Although North Vietnam's air defenses were still weak, ...they would soon become amongst the most formidable ever assembled anywhere." "The plan was to coordinate the efforts of radar sites and observation posts, ...anti aircraft guns and the fighter interceptors." "The planes would try to ambush the enemy and if they couldn't shoot him down, at least force him to fly through heavy ground fire." "In the early days of the air battle, close cooperation between radar, guns and fighters ...would not be easy to achieve." "There were too many different anti aircraft commands." "Soon, as Soviet built anti aircraft missiles became operational, another ingredient would be added to the already complex system." "For a long time to come, North Vietnamese pilots... would run a very high risk of being shot down by friendly fire." "WEAPONS – North Vietnam" "The mainstay of the North Vietnamese Air Force was the Mig-17 jet fighter." "It was an aging design, the top speed of only 710 miles an hour, and was later replaced by the more advanced Mig-21." "Yet the Mig-17 was still a formidable interceptor." "It was one of the most maneuverable jets ever built, and armed with three cannon it was deadly in a dogfight." "By now, the air defense force had a large number of Soviet and Chinese anti aircraft guns." "At the start of the battle they were still simple types with optical sights." "The 23 and 37 mm twins could fire 100 rounds a minute from each barrel but could only reach targets up to 10,000 feet." "The bigger 57mm anti aircraft guns had a ceiling of 18,000 feet." "American pilots could avoid them by flying higher, but in the last moments of an attack aircraft had to come in low." "It was then that the 57mm was an extremely dangerous weapon." "The North Vietnamese regional militia now had half a million members and was equipped with large numbers of light machine guns." "Against low flying planes they could be highly effective." "Militia were even taught to use their rifles against enemy raiders as even a chance hit by a single bullet could bring down a million dollar aircraft in flames." "THE MEN – North Vietnam" "The advanced weaponry supplied by the Soviet Union and China... depended completely on skilled personnel to operate it and maintain it." "North Vietnam was an agricultural country with little industry." "200 North Vietnamese Air Force technicians had been trained in China but it was barely enough." "There was also a shortage of skilled radar operators." "From the start of the American attacks, the pilots of the 921st fighter wing had been keen to get into combat." "They had been training at a furious pace." "Gunnery was given the highest priority." "Pilots practiced opening fire at ranges down to 150 meters to get a kill on the first pass." "All the time the emphasis was on close in engagements... to make the most of the Mig-17's agility." "At the same time, the Air Force was training the next batch of pilots as fast as it possibly could." "Most of the training of pilots, radar operators and anti aircraft gunners was being carried out by Soviet and Chinese military experts." "Many had already taken part in combat operations actually directing the defense." "At a higher level, behind the scenes, there were Soviet and Chinese staff officers working to improve the performance... of every branch of the North Vietnamese armed forces." "ESCALATION" "For the Americans, the first stage in stepping up the campaign against North Vietnam was to weaken its defenses." "In the last week of March, 1965," "U.S. attack planes from the carriers Hancock and Coral Sea hit key North Vietnamese Radar sites." "There was a fierce reaction from Northern Anti aircraft guns and several U.S. planes were shot down." "As the Rolling Thunder campaign built up... the attacks did boost the confidence of the South Vietnamese government." "Government forces were doing better on the battlefield too." "Even so, in Washington the mood was bleak." "On March 29th 1965, NLF guerrillas launched a daring bomb attack on the American embassy in Saigon." "Two Americans and 20 South Vietnamese were killed." "To many in Washington, the attack seemed to underline the need for much stronger measures to be taken in Vietnam." "By now, President Johnson himself was pushing for vigorous action." "He gave permission for the Marines already in Vietnam to be used in combat operations." "Few doubted that more troop deployments would follow." "Soon U.S. Aircraft would be faced with two missions in Southeast Asia:" "The continuing campaign against North Vietnam and supporting U.S. troops in a sharply escalating ground war." "Subtitling:" "DeStrangis"