"Ssc disconnect enable on." "Copy that." "E.L. Com." "All systems are go for entry, copy that." "E.L. Com." "All systems are go for entry, descent, and landing." "All systems are go for entry, descent, and landing." "Stand by." "Stand by." "You're looking fine in flight." "You're looking fine in flight." "Status... good." "You're looking fine in flight." "Status..." "good." "At the dawn of the status... good." "At the dawn of the 21st century, space agencies in at the dawn of the 21st century, space agencies in Europe and America began making 21st century, space agencies in Europe and America began making plans to land the first humans" "Europe and America began making plans to land the first humans on Mars." "Plans to land the first humans on Mars." "But manned missions to the on Mars." "But manned missions to the red planet have been proposed but manned missions to the red planet have been proposed before." "For some, Mars holds the answers to mankind's future in space." "Others say Mars is too far, too to mankind's future in space." "Others say Mars is too far, too dangerous, and too expensive for others say Mars is too far, too dangerous, and too expensive for humans to explore." "And in a world torn by troubles, some say there is no need or will for mankind to reach into some say there is no need or will for mankind to reach into space anymore." "Will for mankind to reach into space anymore." "More than 30 years after the space anymore." "More than 30 years after the last Apollo astronaut walked on more than 30 years after the last Apollo astronaut walked on the moon, the American manned last Apollo astronaut walked on the moon, the American manned space program seems to have lost" "the moon, the American manned space program seems to have lost its way, unable to reach beyond space program seems to have lost its way, unable to reach beyond even low earth orbit." "Its way, unable to reach beyond even low earth orbit." "We've got a problem." "Even low earth orbit." "We've got a problem." "NASA has been literally going we've got a problem." "NASA has been literally going around in circles with its space" "NASA has been literally going around in circles with its space program for the past 30 years." "Astronautical engineer Dr. Robert zubrin has been arguing for years that sending." "Dr. Robert zubrin has been arguing for years that sending humans to Mars is the mission arguing for years that sending humans to Mars is the mission the space program needs." "Humans to Mars is the mission the space program needs." "It's time that we set goals the space program needs." "It's time that we set goals for NASA that were worthy of the it's time that we set goals for NASA that were worthy of the risks of human space flight." "For NASA that were worthy of the risks of human space flight." "Mars is the next logical step in risks of human space flight." "Mars is the next logical step in our space program." "Mars is the next logical step in our space program." "It's the challenge that's been our space program." "It's the challenge that's been staring us in the face for the it's the challenge that's been staring us in the face for the past 30 years." "Staring us in the face for the past 30 years." "It's the planet that's most like past 30 years." "It's the planet that's most like the earth." "It's the planet that's most like the earth." "It's the planet that has on it the earth." "It's the planet that has on it the resources needed to support it's the planet that has on it the resources needed to support life and, therefore, someday, the resources needed to support life and, therefore, someday, technological civilization." "Life and, therefore, someday, technological civilization." "It's the planet that will technological civilization." "It's the planet that will provide us with the answer as to it's the planet that will provide us with the answer as to whether life is prevalent in the provide us with the answer as to whether life is prevalent in the universe or exclusive to the" "whether life is prevalent in the universe or exclusive to the earth." "Universe or exclusive to the earth." "And it's the planet that will earth." "And it's the planet that will give us the critical test as to and it's the planet that will give us the critical test as to whether humanity can break out give us the critical test as to whether humanity can break out of the planet of our birth and" "whether humanity can break out of the planet of our birth and become a space-faring species." "In the early 1990s, zubrin was the head of the Mars direct program at was the head of the Mars direct program at Martin marietta astronautics." "Program at Martin marietta astronautics." "His team developed a mission to" "Martin marietta astronautics." "His team developed a mission to Mars that could be done at a his team developed a mission to Mars that could be done at a fraction of NASA's projected" "Mars that could be done at a fraction of NASA's projected costs." "Fraction of NASA's projected costs." "Using only existing technology, costs." "Using only existing technology, zubrin argues that the first using only existing technology, zubrin argues that the first steps on martian soil could be zubrin argues that the first steps on martian soil could be made within 10 years." "Steps on martian soil could be made within 10 years." "There is absolutely nothing made within 10 years." "There is absolutely nothing in this that is beyond our there is absolutely nothing in this that is beyond our technology." "In this that is beyond our technology." "We are not ready to send technology." "We are not ready to send humans to Mars right now." "We are not ready to send humans to Mars right now." "We don't know how to keep them humans to Mars right now." "We don't know how to keep them alive." "We don't know how to keep them alive." "There are people out there who alive." "There are people out there who say we can go to Mars tomorrow." "There are people out there who say we can go to Mars tomorrow." "One of my requirements, one of say we can go to Mars tomorrow." "One of my requirements, one of NASA's requirements, is that if one of my requirements, one of NASA's requirements, is that if we send humans to Mars, we bring." "NASA's requirements, is that if we send humans to Mars, we bring them back alive." "We send humans to Mars, we bring them back alive." "For the past 15 years, zubrin them back alive." "For the past 15 years, zubrin and his colleagues have waged a for the past 15 years, zubrin and his colleagues have waged a campaign to convince society and and his colleagues have waged a campaign to convince society and the political class that humans" "campaign to convince society and the political class that humans on Mars should be the goal for the political class that humans on Mars should be the goal for NASA now." "This is the story of our cold neighboring planet and the debate over whether man's fate neighboring planet and the debate over whether man's fate is tied to the red world." "Debate over whether man's fate is tied to the red world." "It's the story of an engineer's is tied to the red world." "It's the story of an engineer's journey and the battle of ideas it's the story of an engineer's journey and the battle of ideas over which direction in space journey and the battle of ideas over which direction in space will truly benefit mankind." "Over which direction in space will truly benefit mankind." "We're at a crossroads today." "Will truly benefit mankind." "We're at a crossroads today." "We either muster the courage to we're at a crossroads today." "We either muster the courage to go, or we risk the possibility we either muster the courage to go, or we risk the possibility of stagnation and decay." "Go, or we risk the possibility of stagnation and decay." "The Victor in this debate of stagnation and decay." "The Victor in this debate could determine the fate of the Victor in this debate could determine the fate of mankind." "Could determine the fate of mankind." "Will we become a space-faring mankind." "Will we become a space-faring species?" "Will we become a space-faring species?" "Will we live on more than one species?" "Will we live on more than one planet?" "In the winter of 2003, the Chinese put their first taikonaut in space." "The Chinese space administration plans to begin a manned program of moon exploration by 2017." "Plans to begin a manned program of moon exploration by 2017." "The European space agency has of moon exploration by 2017." "The European space agency has outlined a plan for humans to the European space agency has outlined a plan for humans to the moon by 2024 and to Mars by outlined a plan for humans to the moon by 2024 and to Mars by 2033." "The moon by 2024 and to Mars by 2033." "And the Russians, building on 2033." "And the Russians, building on years of experience, are and the Russians, building on years of experience, are conducting tests for years of experience, are conducting tests for long-duration Mars missions." "In America, with the impending retirement of the shuttle fleet and the completion of the retirement of the shuttle fleet and the completion of the international space station, the and the completion of the international space station, the bush administration announced in" "international space station, the bush administration announced in 2004 the constellation bush administration announced in 2004 the constellation program... 2004 the constellation program..." "...On the moon." "Program...  ..." "On the moon." "...A plan that would return on the moon.  ..." "A plan that would return Americans to the moon by 2020." "A plan that would return Americans to the moon by 2020." "But the program was never fully" "Americans to the moon by 2020." "But the program was never fully funded and was eventually but the program was never fully funded and was eventually cancelled." "In 2010, the Obama administration announced its vision for NASA and the human administration announced its vision for NASA and the human Mars exploration." "And I expect to be around to see it." " See it." "  With a new timeline for." "With a new timeline for humans to Mars sometime after with a new timeline for humans to Mars sometime after 2035, and with administrations humans to Mars sometime after 2035, and with administrations changing every 4 or 8 years, it" "2035, and with administrations changing every 4 or 8 years, it is far from certain that such a changing every 4 or 8 years, it is far from certain that such a plan will be realized." "Is far from certain that such a plan will be realized. 20 years earlier, the first plan will be realized. 20 years earlier, the first president bush also proposed a" "20 years earlier, the first president bush also proposed a long-term human exploration president bush also proposed a long-term human exploration program under great fanfare." "Long-term human exploration program under great fanfare." "The program quietly died in program under great fanfare." "The program quietly died in congress a few years later." "If you want to go to Mars, you cannot do it in 30 years." "You can't do it in 20 years." "You cannot do it in 30 years." "You can't do it in 20 years." "You got to do it in 10 years or you can't do it in 20 years." "You got to do it in 10 years or less from program start, or you got to do it in 10 years or less from program start, or you're more or less guaranteeing less from program start, or you're more or less guaranteeing political failure." "You're more or less guaranteeing political failure." "To date, only the Apollo moon political failure." "To date, only the Apollo moon program, which was announced in to date, only the Apollo moon program, which was announced in 1961 and had men on the moon program, which was announced in 1961 and had men on the moon 8 years later, has succeeded in" "1961 and had men on the moon 8 years later, has succeeded in getting astronauts beyond low 8 years later, has succeeded in getting astronauts beyond low earth orbit." "Getting astronauts beyond low earth orbit." "Earth orbit." "I was 5 when sputnik flew." "I was 5 when sputnik flew." "I was 5 when sputnik flew." "And while, to the adults," "And while, to the adults, sputnik was a terrifying event, and while, to the adults, sputnik was a terrifying event, to me, as a child who was sputnik was a terrifying event, to me, as a child who was already reading science fiction," "to me, as a child who was already reading science fiction, it was exhilarating, 'cause it already reading science fiction, it was exhilarating, 'cause it meant that this possibility of a it was exhilarating, 'cause it meant that this possibility of a space-faring future was going to" "meant that this possibility of a space-faring future was going to be real." "Space-faring future was going to be real." "And I was 9 when Kennedy gave be real." "And I was 9 when Kennedy gave his speech committing us to the and I was 9 when Kennedy gave his speech committing us to the moon." "His speech committing us to the moon." "We choose to go to the moon moon." "We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other we choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things not because they are in this decade and do the other things not because they are easy but because they are hard." "Things not because they are easy but because they are hard." "I grew up during the '60s, easy but because they are hard." "I grew up during the '60s, when it was Mercury." "I grew up during the '60s, when it was Mercury." "It was gemini." "It was Apollo." "When it was Mercury." "It was gemini." "It was Apollo." "Every month, NASA was doing it was gemini." "It was Apollo." "Every month, NASA was doing something more impressive than every month, NASA was doing something more impressive than in the month before." "Something more impressive than in the month before." "We were gonna be on the moon by in the month before." "We were gonna be on the moon by 1970, Mars by 1980, saturn by we were gonna be on the moon by 1970, Mars by 1980, saturn by 1990, Alpha centauri by the year 1970, Mars by 1980, saturn by 1990, Alpha centauri by the year 2000." "1990, Alpha centauri by the year 2000." "We were moving out, and I wanted 2000." "We were moving out, and I wanted to be part of that." "We were moving out, and I wanted to be part of that." "And so I got myself a scientific to be part of that." "And so I got myself a scientific education." "And so I got myself a scientific education." "But then, in the early '70s, education." "But then, in the early '70s, this all collapsed." "But then, in the early '70s, this all collapsed." "We achieved the first part of this all collapsed." "We achieved the first part of that program... moon by 1970... we achieved the first part of that program..." "moon by 1970... but the Nixon administration that program... moon by 1970... but the Nixon administration shut down the rest, and we did but the Nixon administration shut down the rest, and we did not move out into space." "Shut down the rest, and we did not move out into space." "And, for a while, I accepted not move out into space." "And, for a while, I accepted that." "And, for a while, I accepted that." "Grudgingly, I became a science that." "Grudgingly, I became a science teacher." "Grudgingly, I became a science teacher." "But then, in the early '80s, teacher." "But then, in the early '80s, something hit me, and I said, but then, in the early '80s, something hit me, and I said, "I'm not gonna accept myself something hit me, and I said, "I'm not gonna accept myself doing less than what I had." ""I'm not gonna accept myself doing less than what I had dreamed of doing when I was a doing less than what I had dreamed of doing when I was a boy."" "Dreamed of doing when I was a boy." Zubrin went back to graduate boy."  Zubrin went back to graduate school, getting advanced degrees zubrin went back to graduate school, getting advanced degrees in engineering and aerospace." "School, getting advanced degrees in engineering and aerospace." "He then went on to work at in engineering and aerospace." "He then went on to work at Martin marietta, which later he then went on to work at Martin marietta, which later became lockheed Martin," "Martin marietta, which later became lockheed Martin, designing interplanetary became lockheed Martin, designing interplanetary missions." "Designing interplanetary missions." "It was here that zubrin's missions." "It was here that zubrin's obsession with the red planet it was here that zubrin's obsession with the red planet began to take hold." "While at Martin in the 1990s, zubrin and his colleagues developed a plan for sending zubrin and his colleagues developed a plan for sending humans to Mars that changed developed a plan for sending humans to Mars that changed NASA's thinking on the issue." "Humans to Mars that changed NASA's thinking on the issue." "But the plan has languished on." "NASA's thinking on the issue." "But the plan has languished on the drawing boards ever since." "But the plan has languished on the drawing boards ever since." "Now, as President of the the drawing boards ever since." "Now, as President of the Mars society, zubrin is at now, as President of the Mars society, zubrin is at center stage in the debate over" "Mars society, zubrin is at center stage in the debate over the future of manned center stage in the debate over the future of manned space-flight." "The future of manned space-flight." "Known as a smart, visionary space-flight." "Known as a smart, visionary scientist, he has authored known as a smart, visionary scientist, he has authored several books on exploring space scientist, he has authored several books on exploring space and is the self-appointed" "several books on exploring space and is the self-appointed spokesman for the possibility of and is the self-appointed spokesman for the possibility of colonizing Mars." "Spokesman for the possibility of colonizing Mars." "Mars is where the future is." "Colonizing Mars." "Mars is where the future is." "Mars is the closest planet to" "Mars is where the future is." "Mars is the closest planet to the earth that has on it all the" "Mars is the closest planet to the earth that has on it all the resources needed to support life the earth that has on it all the resources needed to support life and, therefore, technological resources needed to support life and, therefore, technological civilization." "And, therefore, technological civilization." "It has water." "It has carbon." "Civilization." "It has water." "It has carbon." "It has nitrogens." "It has water." "It has carbon." "It has nitrogens." "It has a 24-hour day." "It has nitrogens." "It has a 24-hour day." "It has a complex geological it has a 24-hour day." "It has a complex geological history that has created mineral it has a complex geological history that has created mineral ore." "History that has created mineral ore." "It has sources of geothermal ore." "It has sources of geothermal energy." "It has sources of geothermal energy." "Mars is a place we can settle." "Energy." "Mars is a place we can settle." "One reason for such optimism" "Mars is a place we can settle." "One reason for such optimism over a frozen world like Mars is one reason for such optimism over a frozen world like Mars is evidence that 2 billion years over a frozen world like Mars is evidence that 2 billion years ago, Mars was a much warmer and" "evidence that 2 billion years ago, Mars was a much warmer and wetter place." "Ago, Mars was a much warmer and wetter place." "We think that, at one time in wetter place." "We think that, at one time in the ancient past, Mars was we think that, at one time in the ancient past, Mars was very similar to the condition of the ancient past, Mars was very similar to the condition of early earth." "This martian warm age lasted for over a billion years and could've been a suitable for over a billion years and could've been a suitable environment for the development could've been a suitable environment for the development of life." "Environment for the development of life." "If we go to Mars and find of life." "If we go to Mars and find evidence of a second genesis on if we go to Mars and find evidence of a second genesis on Mars, I think we can conclude evidence of a second genesis on Mars, I think we can conclude that the universe is full of" "Mars, I think we can conclude that the universe is full of life." "That the universe is full of life." "We can probably conclude that, life." "We can probably conclude that, on some planets, that life we can probably conclude that, on some planets, that life evolves to more complex forms, on some planets, that life evolves to more complex forms, and I think we'd be reasonable" "evolves to more complex forms, and I think we'd be reasonable to conclude that intelligence and I think we'd be reasonable to conclude that intelligence could also emerge on some to conclude that intelligence could also emerge on some planets, as well." "Could also emerge on some planets, as well." "It really does answer the planets, as well." "It really does answer the question, "are we alone?"" "It really does answer the question, "are we alone?" And that, to me, is a question question, "are we alone?" And that, to me, is a question that transcends science." "And that, to me, is a question that transcends science." "It's a philosophical, societal, that transcends science." "It's a philosophical, societal, as well as scientific question." "It's a philosophical, societal, as well as scientific question." "To me, that's the big prize." "As well as scientific question." "To me, that's the big prize." "That's why Mars is interesting." "To me, that's the big prize." "That's why Mars is interesting." "That's why human exploration that's why Mars is interesting." "That's why human exploration makes sense." "That's why human exploration makes sense." "Space programs are often criticized for the huge sums of money they require." "Criticized for the huge sums of money they require." "Although the American space money they require." "Although the American space program is less than 1% of the although the American space program is less than 1% of the federal budget, a human mission program is less than 1% of the federal budget, a human mission to Mars may have to wait for" "federal budget, a human mission to Mars may have to wait for better times." "To Mars may have to wait for better times." "There are those who say that better times." "There are those who say that we have many problems to deal there are those who say that we have many problems to deal with here on earth, and we need we have many problems to deal with here on earth, and we need to postpone ventures such as the" "with here on earth, and we need to postpone ventures such as the human exploration on Mars until to postpone ventures such as the human exploration on Mars until these problems are solved." "Human exploration on Mars until these problems are solved." "Well, there were many problems these problems are solved." "Well, there were many problems in Spain in 1492." "Well, there were many problems in Spain in 1492." "And there still are." "In Spain in 1492." "And there still are." "There are problems that need to and there still are." "There are problems that need to be dealt with here on earth and there are problems that need to be dealt with here on earth and should be dealt with." "Be dealt with here on earth and should be dealt with." "But we also have to think of the should be dealt with." "But we also have to think of the future." "But we also have to think of the future." "We also have to think about future." "We also have to think about opening up new volumes in human we also have to think about opening up new volumes in human history." "I believe that it is essential for a positive human future that humanity expand into space." "The greatest value that we got out of Apollo was the the greatest value that we got out of Apollo was the creation of intellectual capital got out of Apollo was the creation of intellectual capital through the inspiring of creation of intellectual capital through the inspiring of millions to go into science and" "through the inspiring of millions to go into science and engineering to be part of the millions to go into science and engineering to be part of the great adventure of human engineering to be part of the great adventure of human expansion into space." "Great adventure of human expansion into space." "There's a phrase that expansion into space." "There's a phrase that happened with the Apollo program there's a phrase that happened with the Apollo program which was, "if we can go to the happened with the Apollo program which was, "if we can go to the moon, we can..." And then" "which was, "if we can go to the moon, we can..." And then everybody's filled in whatever moon, we can..." And then everybody's filled in whatever they were interested in... build" "everybody's filled in whatever they were interested in... build mass transit, cure cancer, do they were interested in... build mass transit, cure cancer, do this, do that." "Mass transit, cure cancer, do this, do that." "The point is, it did give us a this, do that." "The point is, it did give us a sense that we could accomplish the point is, it did give us a sense that we could accomplish great things." "Sense that we could accomplish great things." "It did bring out the best of us." "Great things." "It did bring out the best of us." "We excited a generation of it did bring out the best of us." "We excited a generation of engineers and scientists, the we excited a generation of engineers and scientists, the generation that built the engineers and scientists, the generation that built the computers and cellphones and all generation that built the computers and cellphones and all the technology everybody uses" "computers and cellphones and all the technology everybody uses today and takes for granted." "The technology everybody uses today and takes for granted." "If we set humans to Mars as today and takes for granted." "If we set humans to Mars as our goal, we'll get millions of if we set humans to Mars as our goal, we'll get millions of new scientists that will create our goal, we'll get millions of new scientists that will create new inventions, new industries." "New scientists that will create new inventions, new industries." "This is the enormous payback." "New inventions, new industries." "This is the enormous payback." "And we can get it if we set the this is the enormous payback." "And we can get it if we set the kind of challenge that will and we can get it if we set the kind of challenge that will inspire the youth." "To zubrin, civilizations, like people, thrive on challenge and decay without it." "Like people, thrive on challenge and decay without it." "We have everything we have and decay without it." "We have everything we have today because of our we have everything we have today because of our predecessors who had the courage today because of our predecessors who had the courage to leave the world of the known predecessors who had the courage to leave the world of the known and go out into the wilderness" "to leave the world of the known and go out into the wilderness and build new cities." "And go out into the wilderness and build new cities." "And if we stop being people like and build new cities." "And if we stop being people like that, then we will hand down and if we stop being people like that, then we will hand down much less to our posterity than that, then we will hand down much less to our posterity than our ancestors handed down to us." "Much less to our posterity than our ancestors handed down to us." "So, there's the choice in life." "Our ancestors handed down to us." "So, there's the choice in life." "One either grows, or one decays." "So, there's the choice in life." "One either grows, or one decays." "Grow or die." "One either grows, or one decays." "Grow or die." "I think we should grow." "History proves that we have never lost by pressing the limits of our frontier." "In the summer of 1989, the first president bush announced the space exploration initiative first president bush announced the space exploration initiative directing NASA to draw up the space exploration initiative directing NASA to draw up long-term plans to get humans" "directing NASA to draw up long-term plans to get humans back to the moon, and begin long-term plans to get humans back to the moon, and begin developing a program of manned back to the moon, and begin developing a program of manned Mars exploration." "Developing a program of manned Mars exploration." "At Martin marietta, zubrin and" "Mars exploration." "At Martin marietta, zubrin and his colleagues looked forward to at Martin marietta, zubrin and his colleagues looked forward to moving NASA's space program his colleagues looked forward to moving NASA's space program outwards after two decades in" "moving NASA's space program outwards after two decades in low-earth orbit." "Outwards after two decades in low-earth orbit." "Of course, we were very low-earth orbit." "Of course, we were very excited when bush made his call of course, we were very excited when bush made his call saying that he was making a excited when bush made his call saying that he was making a national commitment to implement" "saying that he was making a national commitment to implement such a program." "National commitment to implement such a program." "NASA assembled a large team such a program." "NASA assembled a large team to take on the space initiative." "NASA assembled a large team to take on the space initiative." "In 90 days, the team developed a to take on the space initiative." "In 90 days, the team developed a 30-year plan that required an in 90 days, the team developed a 30-year plan that required an enormous buildup of space 30-year plan that required an enormous buildup of space infrastructure." "Enormous buildup of space infrastructure." "What the NASA bureaucracy infrastructure." "What the NASA bureaucracy decided to do was basically what the NASA bureaucracy decided to do was basically design the most complex mission decided to do was basically design the most complex mission they possibly could in order to design the most complex mission they possibly could in order to make sure that everyone's pet" "they possibly could in order to make sure that everyone's pet technology would remain make sure that everyone's pet technology would remain mission-critical, which is the technology would remain mission-critical, which is the exact opposite of the correct" "mission-critical, which is the exact opposite of the correct way to do engineering." "Exact opposite of the correct way to do engineering." "First, NASA would triple the way to do engineering." "First, NASA would triple the size of the planned space first, NASA would triple the size of the planned space station and add enormous hangars size of the planned space station and add enormous hangars as well as free-floating fuel" "station and add enormous hangars as well as free-floating fuel depots, checkout docks, and crew as well as free-floating fuel depots, checkout docks, and crew stations." "Depots, checkout docks, and crew stations." "Then, on the moon, they would stations." "Then, on the moon, they would construct more ship-building then, on the moon, they would construct more ship-building facilities, bases, and depots." "Construct more ship-building facilities, bases, and depots." "Next, the moon crew would facilities, bases, and depots." "Next, the moon crew would construct the Mars ship, a huge next, the moon crew would construct the Mars ship, a huge craft dubbed by its detractors construct the Mars ship, a huge craft dubbed by its detractors as "Battlestar Galactica."" "Craft dubbed by its detractors as "Battlestar Galactica." This ship would carry everything as "Battlestar Galactica." This ship would carry everything to Mars over an 18-month flight." "This ship would carry everything to Mars over an 18-month flight." "Once in Mars' orbit, a small to Mars over an 18-month flight." "Once in Mars' orbit, a small group would descend to the once in Mars' orbit, a small group would descend to the surface, spend a few days, then group would descend to the surface, spend a few days, then plant a flag in the ground and" "surface, spend a few days, then plant a flag in the ground and go home." "Plant a flag in the ground and go home." "The plan became known as the go home." "The plan became known as the 90-day report." "The plan became known as the 90-day report." "To those of us at Martin who 90-day report." "To those of us at Martin who had been engaged in designing to those of us at Martin who had been engaged in designing Mars missions, when we saw the had been engaged in designing Mars missions, when we saw the monstrosity of complexity of the" "Mars missions, when we saw the monstrosity of complexity of the 90-day report, we were dismayed." "Monstrosity of complexity of the 90-day report, we were dismayed." "And it was readily apparent to 90-day report, we were dismayed." "And it was readily apparent to anyone with any insight that and it was readily apparent to anyone with any insight that that program would fail anyone with any insight that that program would fail politically." "That program would fail politically." "The plan was submitted to politically." "The plan was submitted to congress." "The plan was submitted to congress." "The estimated cost... congress." "The estimated cost..." "$450 billion." "The estimated cost... $450 billion." "The legislators went into" "$450 billion." "The legislators went into sticker shock." "The legislators went into sticker shock." "This would've been the single sticker shock." "This would've been the single most expensive program for the this would've been the single most expensive program for the United States since most expensive program for the United States since world war ii." "United States since world war ii." "By the end of 1990, congress had world war ii." "By the end of 1990, congress had refused all requests for s.E.I." "By the end of 1990, congress had refused all requests for s.E.I. Funding." "Refused all requests for s.E.I. Funding." "Funding." "When the realization came that." "When the realization came that s.E.I. Was doomed, zubrin wrote when the realization came that s.E.I. Was doomed, zubrin wrote a memo to his colleagues at s.E.I. Was doomed, zubrin wrote a memo to his colleagues at Martin marietta outlining his" "a memo to his colleagues at Martin marietta outlining his problems with the NASA plan and" "Martin marietta outlining his problems with the NASA plan and arguing for a more direct problems with the NASA plan and arguing for a more direct approach." "Arguing for a more direct approach." "Zubrin favored launching a Mars approach." "Zubrin favored launching a Mars mission directly from the zubrin favored launching a Mars mission directly from the surface of earth using only mission directly from the surface of earth using only existing rocket technology." "Surface of earth using only existing rocket technology." "This negated the need for a existing rocket technology." "This negated the need for a lunar base and avoided the this negated the need for a lunar base and avoided the complexity and cost of building lunar base and avoided the complexity and cost of building ships in space." "Complexity and cost of building ships in space." "He also objected to NASA's plan ships in space." "He also objected to NASA's plan for a short surface stay on he also objected to NASA's plan for a short surface stay on Mars, a mission that would for a short surface stay on Mars, a mission that would amount to little more than a" "Mars, a mission that would amount to little more than a flag-and-footprints exercise." "Amount to little more than a flag-and-footprints exercise." "To zubrin, we were going to Mars flag-and-footprints exercise." "To zubrin, we were going to Mars to explore and develop a new to zubrin, we were going to Mars to explore and develop a new world." "To explore and develop a new world." "To maximize surface time, zubrin world." "To maximize surface time, zubrin proposed using a faster to maximize surface time, zubrin proposed using a faster flight-path known as a proposed using a faster flight-path known as a conjunction-class mission." "Flight-path known as a conjunction-class mission." "This would mean a crew could conjunction-class mission." "This would mean a crew could arrive on Mars after only a this would mean a crew could arrive on Mars after only a six-month journey." "Arrive on Mars after only a six-month journey." "They would then remain on the six-month journey." "They would then remain on the martian surface for a year and a they would then remain on the martian surface for a year and a half." "Martian surface for a year and a half." "This would give the team time to half." "This would give the team time to explore a wide area and conduct this would give the team time to explore a wide area and conduct detailed research about the explore a wide area and conduct detailed research about the planet." "Detailed research about the planet." "Then, as the earth return window planet." "Then, as the earth return window opens, the crew would launch then, as the earth return window opens, the crew would launch from Mars for the six-month trip opens, the crew would launch from Mars for the six-month trip home." "From Mars for the six-month trip home." "Zubrin was convinced that a home." "Zubrin was convinced that a simplified, more robust and zubrin was convinced that a simplified, more robust and cost-effective mission could be simplified, more robust and cost-effective mission could be designed using these principles." "Along with several like-minded colleagues, zubrin decided to ask management at Martin to colleagues, zubrin decided to ask management at Martin to allow them to design alternative ask management at Martin to allow them to design alternative Mars missions." "Allow them to design alternative Mars missions." "The management approved that," "Mars missions." "The management approved that, and we formed a team... it was the management approved that, and we formed a team... it was known as the scenario and we formed a team... it was known as the scenario development team... of just" "known as the scenario development team..." "of just 12 people from the whole, very development team... of just 12 people from the whole, very large Martin company." "12 people from the whole, very large Martin company." "One team member whose large Martin company." "One team member whose thinking was closely aligned one team member whose thinking was closely aligned with zubrin's was David Baker." "Thinking was closely aligned with zubrin's was David Baker." "I went off to my office and with zubrin's was David Baker." "I went off to my office and said, "all right." "I went off to my office and said, "all right." "How would I do a Mars mission if said, "all right." "How would I do a Mars mission if I had to pay for it and I had to how would I do a Mars mission if I had to pay for it and I had to go on the ride?"" "I had to pay for it and I had to go on the ride? " And I said, " well, it's gonna be go on the ride?" And I said, "well, it's gonna be simple." "And I said, "well, it's gonna be simple." "There's gonna be no on-orbit simple." "There's gonna be no on-orbit assembly."" "There's gonna be no on-orbit assembly." I really tried to take assembly." I really tried to take everything out of the mission" "I really tried to take everything out of the mission that didn't absolutely need to everything out of the mission that didn't absolutely need to be there." "That didn't absolutely need to be there." "While the rest of the team be there." "While the rest of the team focused on longer-term, more while the rest of the team focused on longer-term, more traditional mission plans that focused on longer-term, more traditional mission plans that required on-orbit assembly, traditional mission plans that required on-orbit assembly, zubrin and Baker decided to" "required on-orbit assembly, zubrin and Baker decided to collaborate on a mission that zubrin and Baker decided to collaborate on a mission that could be done near-term." "Collaborate on a mission that could be done near-term." "We decided to do Mars the way could be done near-term." "We decided to do Mars the way Lewis and Clark did America, we decided to do Mars the way Lewis and Clark did America, okay?" "Lewis and Clark did America, okay?" "Use the local resources." "Okay?" "Use the local resources." "Travel light." "Live off the land." "Use the local resources." "Travel light." "Live off the land." "Zubrin and Baker were convinced that a Mars mission could be launched directly from convinced that a Mars mission could be launched directly from the ground." "Could be launched directly from the ground." "The other team members felt this the ground." "The other team members felt this was impossible... that the the other team members felt this was impossible... that the weight of the rocket fuel was impossible... that the weight of the rocket fuel required for a round-trip to" "weight of the rocket fuel required for a round-trip to Mars was so enormous, it would required for a round-trip to Mars was so enormous, it would render the launch ship" "Mars was so enormous, it would render the launch ship impossibly heavy." "Render the launch ship impossibly heavy." "To solve this problem, zubrin impossibly heavy." "To solve this problem, zubrin was exploring a radical idea to solve this problem, zubrin was exploring a radical idea that had been kicked around the was exploring a radical idea that had been kicked around the aerospace industry since the" "that had been kicked around the aerospace industry since the 1970s." "Aerospace industry since the 1970s." "The idea was to produce a 1970s." "The idea was to produce a methane-oxygen rocket fuel the idea was to produce a methane-oxygen rocket fuel directly from the martian methane-oxygen rocket fuel directly from the martian atmosphere." "Directly from the martian atmosphere." "It was a relatively simple and atmosphere." "It was a relatively simple and robust chemical engineering it was a relatively simple and robust chemical engineering procedure that was done commonly robust chemical engineering procedure that was done commonly in the 1800s, the era of the gas procedure that was done commonly in the 1800s, the era of the gas light." "In the 1800s, the era of the gas light." "If the idea worked, astronauts light." "If the idea worked, astronauts could land a relatively light if the idea worked, astronauts could land a relatively light ship with empty tanks." "Could land a relatively light ship with empty tanks." "They wouldn't have to ship all ship with empty tanks." "They wouldn't have to ship all the fuel with them for their they wouldn't have to ship all the fuel with them for their return trip." "The fuel with them for their return trip." "This would radically lower their return trip." "This would radically lower their size and weight." "This would radically lower their size and weight." "The only problem was size and weight." "The only problem was methane-oxygen fuel requires a the only problem was methane-oxygen fuel requires a hydrogen component." "Methane-oxygen fuel requires a hydrogen component." "Hydrogen exists on Mars in the hydrogen component." "Hydrogen exists on Mars in the form of h2o." "Hydrogen exists on Mars in the form of h2o." "But water may be difficult or form of h2o." "But water may be difficult or impossible to extract from the but water may be difficult or impossible to extract from the martian environment." "Impossible to extract from the martian environment." "Really, the hydrogen was only martian environment." "Really, the hydrogen was only 5% of the total weight of the really, the hydrogen was only 5% of the total weight of the methane-oxygen propellant being 5% of the total weight of the methane-oxygen propellant being manufactured." "Methane-oxygen propellant being manufactured." "So, if you just say, "okay." "Manufactured." "So, if you just say, "okay." "We won't be pure." "So, if you just say, "okay." "We won't be pure." "We won't get all of the we won't be pure." "We won't get all of the propellant from Mars." "We won't get all of the propellant from Mars." "We'll just get 95% of the propellant from Mars." "We'll just get 95% of the propellant from Mars." "We'll just get 95% of the propellant from Mars." "The other 5%... the hydrogen... propellant from Mars." "The other 5%... the hydrogen... we'll just bring from earth."" "The other 5%... the hydrogen... we'll just bring from earth."  Another fundamental resource we'll just bring from earth."  Another fundamental resource that could be extracted from the another fundamental resource that could be extracted from the martian environment is oxygen." "That could be extracted from the martian environment is oxygen." "A second processing unit could martian environment is oxygen." "A second processing unit could separate oxygen molecules from a second processing unit could separate oxygen molecules from the thin carbon dioxide separate oxygen molecules from the thin carbon dioxide atmosphere, providing the thin carbon dioxide atmosphere, providing breathable air for a Mars crew." "Atmosphere, providing breathable air for a Mars crew." "If used intelligently, the breathable air for a Mars crew." "If used intelligently, the same resources that make Mars if used intelligently, the same resources that make Mars interesting are precisely what same resources that make Mars interesting are precisely what could make it attainable." "Interesting are precisely what could make it attainable." "Baker and zubrin had greatly could make it attainable." "Baker and zubrin had greatly reduced their mission mass." "Baker and zubrin had greatly reduced their mission mass." "But they still found their ship reduced their mission mass." "But they still found their ship was too heavy and would require but they still found their ship was too heavy and would require two launches and assembly in was too heavy and would require two launches and assembly in space." "Two launches and assembly in space." "Then zubrin hit on an idea." "Space." "Then zubrin hit on an idea." "Well, one of the key events then zubrin hit on an idea." "Well, one of the key events of the Mars directive element well, one of the key events of the Mars directive element was one morning, Bob burst into of the Mars directive element was one morning, Bob burst into my office and said, "I've got" "was one morning, Bob burst into my office and said, "I've got it."" "My office and said, "I've got it." The idea that I finally hit it."  The idea that I finally hit on in 1989 was that we would the idea that I finally hit on in 1989 was that we would split the mission up into two" "on in 1989 was that we would split the mission up into two parts, and we'd send the return split the mission up into two parts, and we'd send the return vehicle out first with its own" "parts, and we'd send the return vehicle out first with its own return propellant plant." "Vehicle out first with its own return propellant plant." "So the propellant would be made return propellant plant." "So the propellant would be made on Mars before the first so the propellant would be made on Mars before the first astronauts ever left earth." "On Mars before the first astronauts ever left earth." "With two separate astronauts ever left earth." "With two separate direct-to-Mars launches, a human with two separate direct-to-Mars launches, a human crew would have a fully fueled direct-to-Mars launches, a human crew would have a fully fueled ship waiting for them on the crew would have a fully fueled ship waiting for them on the surface of Mars before they ever" "ship waiting for them on the surface of Mars before they ever left earth." "Surface of Mars before they ever left earth." "So zubrin and Baker had come up left earth." "So zubrin and Baker had come up with a plan that seemed to so zubrin and Baker had come up with a plan that seemed to accomplish all of their goals." "With a plan that seemed to accomplish all of their goals." "It was relatively inexpensive, accomplish all of their goals." "It was relatively inexpensive, development time was short, they it was relatively inexpensive, development time was short, they could use existing technology, development time was short, they could use existing technology, and it allowed for a long stay" "could use existing technology, and it allowed for a long stay on the martian surface." "And it allowed for a long stay on the martian surface." "They dubbed their idea on the martian surface." "They dubbed their idea "Mars direct."" "Ssc disconnect enable on.  35." "Electronics... go." "35." "Electronics..." "go." "Hydraulics... go." "Electronics... go." "Hydraulics... go." "Aboardan Aresrocketisthe hydraulics... go." "Aboard an Ares rocket is the earth-return vehicle, or e.R.V." "Aboard an Ares rocket is the earth-return vehicle, or e.R.V.  Pressurized vehicle..." "Earth-return vehicle, or e.R.V.  Pressurized vehicle..." "No one is aboard this ship." "Pressurized vehicle..." "No one is aboard this ship." "It will pave the way for the no one is aboard this ship." "It will pave the way for the astronauts who, years later, it will pave the way for the astronauts who, years later, will use the e.R.V. To return to astronauts who, years later, will use the e.R.V. To return to earth." "Will use the e.R.V. To return to earth." "...2, 1." "Earth." "...2, 1." "...2, 1." "That's liftoff." "On its second day, the e.R.V. Deploys a small nuclear power on its second day, the e.R.V. Deploys a small nuclear power reactor." "Deploys a small nuclear power reactor." "The reactor powers a chemical reactor." "The reactor powers a chemical plant inside the e.R.V." "The reactor powers a chemical plant inside the e.R.V. The plant will produce the plant inside the e.R.V. The plant will produce the methane-oxygen rocket fuel for the plant will produce the methane-oxygen rocket fuel for the launch home." "Methane-oxygen rocket fuel for the launch home." "Nearby, a second robotic rover is guided to a pre-picked nearby, a second robotic rover is guided to a pre-picked landing site for the human crew." "Is guided to a pre-picked landing site for the human crew." "It places a radar transponder to landing site for the human crew." "It places a radar transponder to help guide the astronauts in." "It places a radar transponder to help guide the astronauts in." "The long journey to land a human help guide the astronauts in." "The long journey to land a human being on Mars begins." "The long journey to land a human being on Mars begins." "Green board." "Being on Mars begins." "Green board." "3, 2, 1, engines start." "Green board." "3, 2, 1, engines start." "Carrying the most skillfully assembled flight team in carrying the most skillfully assembled flight team in history, four astronauts begin assembled flight team in history, four astronauts begin their 2 1/2 year mission to the history, four astronauts begin their 2 1/2 year mission to the red planet." "This will be the first time a human has gone beyond the earth-moon system, 250 million human has gone beyond the earth-moon system, 250 million Miles farther than any person earth-moon system, 250 million Miles farther than any person has ever been." "Miles farther than any person has ever been." "To counter the health problems of zero gravity and to fully acclimate the astronauts to of zero gravity and to fully acclimate the astronauts to Mars, the ship will deploy a acclimate the astronauts to Mars, the ship will deploy a weighted tether attached to the" "Mars, the ship will deploy a weighted tether attached to the last stage of the spent rocket weighted tether attached to the last stage of the spent rocket booster." "Last stage of the spent rocket booster." "Booster." "By thrusting the ship into a." "By thrusting the ship into a rotational spin, the by thrusting the ship into a rotational spin, the counterweight of the rocket will rotational spin, the counterweight of the rocket will create centrifugal force and, counterweight of the rocket will create centrifugal force and, thus, artificial gravity." "Create centrifugal force and, thus, artificial gravity." "The crew will be able to live thus, artificial gravity." "The crew will be able to live with their feet planted firmly the crew will be able to live with their feet planted firmly on the floor during their with their feet planted firmly on the floor during their six-month transit." "But the "hab" is not entirely alone on its journey." "Just ahead of it is a second alone on its journey." "Just ahead of it is a second e.R.V. Identical to the first." "Just ahead of it is a second e.R.V. Identical to the first." "Launched just a few weeks prior e.R.V. Identical to the first." "Launched just a few weeks prior to the hab, it will prepare the launched just a few weeks prior to the hab, it will prepare the way for a second human crew that to the hab, it will prepare the way for a second human crew that will follow two years later." "Way for a second human crew that will follow two years later." "It can also function as a backup will follow two years later." "It can also function as a backup for the first mission if it can also function as a backup for the first mission if anything should go wrong." "On the sixth month of the flight, the crew will gaze upon an alien world." "This is the new frontier." "Oh, that's spectacular, just." "Oh, that's spectacular, just spectacular." "Oh, that's spectacular, just spectacular." "After days in orbit, and spectacular." "After days in orbit, and satisfied with the landing after days in orbit, and satisfied with the landing conditions, the crew will satisfied with the landing conditions, the crew will receive final word from conditions, the crew will receive final word from mission control on earth." "Receive final word from mission control on earth." "All systems are go for mission control on earth." "All systems are go for entry, descent, and landing." "All systems are go for entry, descent, and landing. 3, 2, 1." "Entry, descent, and landing." "3, 2, 1." "It will be a tense 40 minutes before people back on earth get the signal from Mars and know if before people back on earth get the signal from Mars and know if everything has gone well." "The signal from Mars and know if everything has gone well." "Okay. 75 feet." "Guys, looking good." "Down a half." "Guys, looking good." "Down a half." "Face forward. 60 seconds." "Down a half." "Face forward. 60 seconds." "Face forward. 60 seconds." "Lights on." "Forward." "Forward." "Lights on." "Forward." "Forward." "43 down. 2 1/2." "Lights on." "Forward." "Forward. 43 down." "2 1/2." "Straight down." "43 down. 2 1/2." "Straight down." "More forward." "Straight down." "More forward." "Drifting to the right a little more forward." "Drifting to the right a little 30 seconds." "Forward." "Drifting to the right a little 30 seconds." "Forward." "Contact right." "30 seconds." "Forward." "Contact right." "Okay, engines stopped." "Contact right." "Okay, engines stopped." "We're seeing it on the lcd." "Okay, engines stopped." "We're seeing it on the lcd." "We're seeing it on the lcd." "We're on Mars, everybody." "For more than 500 days, the." "For more than 500 days, the astronauts will live on Mars and for more than 500 days, the astronauts will live on Mars and embark on one of the greatest astronauts will live on Mars and embark on one of the greatest journeys of discovery in the" "embark on one of the greatest journeys of discovery in the history of science." "Journeys of discovery in the history of science." "Will they find life..." "History of science." "Will they find life..." "Or the fossilized remains of will they find life..." "Or the fossilized remains of past life?" "Such a discovery could tell us whether our solar system has seen more than one genesis and whether our solar system has seen more than one genesis and answer the ultimate question... seen more than one genesis and answer the ultimate question... are we alone?" "In any case, these explorers will be learning how feasible the colonization of Mars really will be learning how feasible the colonization of Mars really is and whether or not mankind the colonization of Mars really is and whether or not mankind has a future among the stars." "Then, when the time comes and the window for earth return opens, the crew will climb into the window for earth return opens, the crew will climb into their earth-return vehicle and opens, the crew will climb into their earth-return vehicle and head home." "Their earth-return vehicle and head home." "They will arrive home heroes, the first to stretch the limit of man's expanse from one planet the first to stretch the limit of man's expanse from one planet to another, their names added to of man's expanse from one planet to another, their names added to the list of great explorers of" "to another, their names added to the list of great explorers of new worlds." "In their footsteps, others will follow." "What began as a trickle is free to rise into a deluge of humankind sweeping over a to rise into a deluge of humankind sweeping over a once-barren land and humankind sweeping over a once-barren land and transforming it into a viable" "once-barren land and transforming it into a viable new world." "When Baker and zubrin presented "Mars direct" to their bosses at Martin, they expected the worst." "To their surprise, management was excited about it." "They liked the fact that was excited about it." "They liked the fact that everything needed was relatively they liked the fact that everything needed was relatively simple and near-term." "As time went on, Martin marietta embraced Mars direct as their creation" "Martin marietta embraced Mars direct as their creation and put Bob and I on an airplane" "Mars direct as their creation and put Bob and I on an airplane to several NASA centers to and put Bob and I on an airplane to several NASA centers to present Mars direct and try to to several NASA centers to present Mars direct and try to build some momentum for it." "Present Mars direct and try to build some momentum for it." "Baker and zubrin flew to the build some momentum for it." "Baker and zubrin flew to the Marshall space flight center in" "Baker and zubrin flew to the Marshall space flight center in huntsville, Alabama." "Marshall space flight center in huntsville, Alabama." "This had been one of the huntsville, Alabama." "This had been one of the original design hubs for the this had been one of the original design hubs for the Apollo moon landings." "Original design hubs for the Apollo moon landings." "But recently, many of the" "Apollo moon landings." "But recently, many of the engineers had become demoralized but recently, many of the engineers had become demoralized by the failure of NASA's s.E.I." "Engineers had become demoralized by the failure of NASA's s.E.I. Program." "By the failure of NASA's s.E.I. Program." "Tag-team style, Baker and program." "Tag-team style, Baker and zubrin presented their tag-team style, Baker and zubrin presented their alternative mission zubrin presented their alternative mission architecture." "Alternative mission architecture." "The response was thrilling." "Architecture." "The response was thrilling." "The old-school Apollo crowd the response was thrilling." "The old-school Apollo crowd embraced it." "The old-school Apollo crowd embraced it." " Embraced it." " This was a plan that actually." "This was a plan that actually made sense and was within reach." "This was a plan that actually made sense and was within reach." "Baker and I gave a number of made sense and was within reach." "Baker and I gave a number of briefings." "Baker and I gave a number of briefings." "The first was at the briefings." "The first was at the Marshall space flight center." "The first was at the Marshall space flight center." "Next was at Johnson." "Marshall space flight center." "Next was at Johnson." "These people were incredibly next was at Johnson." "These people were incredibly excited." "These people were incredibly excited." "Excited." "Over the next few weeks," "Over the next few weeks, zubrin and Baker were flown over the next few weeks, zubrin and Baker were flown around the country, pitching to zubrin and Baker were flown around the country, pitching to all branches of NASA." "Around the country, pitching to all branches of NASA." "And everywhere they went, the all branches of NASA." "And everywhere they went, the response was electric." "And everywhere they went, the response was electric." "The plan was standing up to response was electric." "The plan was standing up to scrutiny, and groups all over the plan was standing up to scrutiny, and groups all over NASA were converting to scrutiny, and groups all over NASA were converting to Mars direct." "NASA were converting to Mars direct." "Their tour culminated in a" "Mars direct." "Their tour culminated in a public presentation to the their tour culminated in a public presentation to the national space society." "Public presentation to the national space society." "The crowd gave the two aerospace national space society." "The crowd gave the two aerospace engineers a standing ovation." "The crowd gave the two aerospace engineers a standing ovation." "A week later, the story was in newspapers around the country." "But a counterattack was beginning to form within NASA." "The space station teams and many beginning to form within NASA." "The space station teams and many in the advanced propulsion the space station teams and many in the advanced propulsion groups were against the idea." "In the advanced propulsion groups were against the idea." "Since Mars direct didn't need groups were against the idea." "Since Mars direct didn't need their programs, they felt under since Mars direct didn't need their programs, they felt under threat." "Their programs, they felt under threat." "As quickly as doors opened for threat." "As quickly as doors opened for zubrin and Baker, they began to as quickly as doors opened for zubrin and Baker, they began to close." "Zubrin and Baker, they began to close." "NASA didn't want to pursue a close." "NASA didn't want to pursue a Mars mission at that time." "NASA didn't want to pursue a Mars mission at that time." "They didn't want to be derailed" "Mars mission at that time." "They didn't want to be derailed by a bunch of Mars fanatics that they didn't want to be derailed by a bunch of Mars fanatics that thought that their idea of what by a bunch of Mars fanatics that thought that their idea of what NASA should do, should overwhelm" "thought that their idea of what NASA should do, should overwhelm what NASA thought NASA should" "NASA should do, should overwhelm what NASA thought NASA should do." "What NASA thought NASA should do." "What we did in Mars direct do." "What we did in Mars direct was literally come up with the what we did in Mars direct was literally come up with the leanest solution, the one that was literally come up with the leanest solution, the one that involved the least spending on" "leanest solution, the one that involved the least spending on an assortment of technologies involved the least spending on an assortment of technologies and infrastructural elements, an assortment of technologies and infrastructural elements, including... for example, we" "and infrastructural elements, including... for example, we made no use whatsoever of the including... for example, we made no use whatsoever of the international space station." "Made no use whatsoever of the international space station." "And so people involved in all international space station." "And so people involved in all those programs were very upset, and so people involved in all those programs were very upset, because we were showing that you those programs were very upset, because we were showing that you could go to Mars without their" "because we were showing that you could go to Mars without their program being required." "Could go to Mars without their program being required." "They felt that we were program being required." "They felt that we were de-justifying them." "They felt that we were de-justifying them." "The NASA administration de-justifying them." "The NASA administration rejected Mars direct." "The NASA administration rejected Mars direct." "The two engineers were outsiders rejected Mars direct." "The two engineers were outsiders again." "The two engineers were outsiders again." "But zubrin remained determined." "Again." "But zubrin remained determined." "Bob had grabbed hold of it." "But zubrin remained determined." "Bob had grabbed hold of it." "And I could see that it was his," "Bob had grabbed hold of it." "And I could see that it was his, and no matter what I did, he was and I could see that it was his, and no matter what I did, he was gonna do what he was going to and no matter what I did, he was gonna do what he was going to do, and he was going to be a" "gonna do what he was going to do, and he was going to be a proponent for it and push it." "Do, and he was going to be a proponent for it and push it." "And I really saw my role sort of proponent for it and push it." "And I really saw my role sort of evaporate." "And I really saw my role sort of evaporate." "It's a little bit like being a evaporate." "It's a little bit like being a dim planet next to a bright star it's a little bit like being a dim planet next to a bright star around him, in terms of his dim planet next to a bright star around him, in terms of his enthusiasm." "Around him, in terms of his enthusiasm." "And you really can't compete enthusiasm." "And you really can't compete with that." "And you really can't compete with that." "All you can do is decide how with that." "All you can do is decide how you're going to deal with it." "All you can do is decide how you're going to deal with it." "By February 1991, Baker quit you're going to deal with it." "By February 1991, Baker quit Martin to start his own firm." "Zubrin battled on." "For the next year and a half, zubrin tried to get NASA to pay for the next year and a half, zubrin tried to get NASA to pay attention, giving speeches, zubrin tried to get NASA to pay attention, giving speeches, writing papers." "Attention, giving speeches, writing papers." "But Mars direct's time seemed to writing papers." "But Mars direct's time seemed to have passed." "But then, in 1992, a new administration came into power at NASA, and zubrin saw a second administration came into power at NASA, and zubrin saw a second chance." "At NASA, and zubrin saw a second chance." "I was invited to brief chance." "I was invited to brief Mike Griffin, who was the" "I was invited to brief Mike Griffin, who was the associate administrator for" "Mike Griffin, who was the associate administrator for space exploration, in charge of associate administrator for space exploration, in charge of the whole space exploration space exploration, in charge of the whole space exploration initiative." "The whole space exploration initiative." "He immediately became a very initiative." "He immediately became a very strong supporter of Mars direct." "He immediately became a very strong supporter of Mars direct." "But before the engineers at strong supporter of Mars direct." "But before the engineers at NASA would take another look at but before the engineers at NASA would take another look at Mars direct, they wanted zubrin" "NASA would take another look at Mars direct, they wanted zubrin to prove that producing rocket" "Mars direct, they wanted zubrin to prove that producing rocket fuel on Mars could work." "To prove that producing rocket fuel on Mars could work." "They gave Martin marietta a fuel on Mars could work." "They gave Martin marietta a small budget to do an they gave Martin marietta a small budget to do an experiment." "Small budget to do an experiment." "Zubrin and his team built a experiment." "Zubrin and his team built a machine called the zubrin and his team built a machine called the in-situ propellant plant." "Machine called the in-situ propellant plant." "It could take carbon dioxide, in-situ propellant plant." "It could take carbon dioxide, the dominant gas in the martian it could take carbon dioxide, the dominant gas in the martian atmosphere, combine it with a the dominant gas in the martian atmosphere, combine it with a little hydrogen, and produce a" "atmosphere, combine it with a little hydrogen, and produce a methane-oxygen fuel." "Little hydrogen, and produce a methane-oxygen fuel." " Methane-oxygen fuel." "  We did it in three months." "We did it in three months with a very small team." "We did it in three months with a very small team." "We built a plant that was 94% with a very small team." "We built a plant that was 94% efficient." "We built a plant that was 94% efficient." "And no one who actually efficient." "And no one who actually participated in that effort was and no one who actually participated in that effort was actually a real chemical participated in that effort was actually a real chemical engineer." "Actually a real chemical engineer." "They were all aerospace engineer." "They were all aerospace engineers like me, who were they were all aerospace engineers like me, who were simply dabbling in chemistry in engineers like me, who were simply dabbling in chemistry in order to prove to NASA that" "simply dabbling in chemistry in order to prove to NASA that 19th-century chemical order to prove to NASA that 19th-century chemical engineering really worked." "19th-century chemical engineering really worked." "With the experiment a engineering really worked." "With the experiment a success, the administration had with the experiment a success, the administration had zubrin give detailed briefings success, the administration had zubrin give detailed briefings of the mission plan to the zubrin give detailed briefings of the mission plan to the engineers at the" "of the mission plan to the engineers at the Johnson space center." "Engineers at the Johnson space center." "They liked it but had some" "Johnson space center." "They liked it but had some problems." "They liked it but had some problems." "Dave Weaver was the lead mission problems." "Dave Weaver was the lead mission architect." "Dave Weaver was the lead mission architect." "There were a number of things architect." "There were a number of things that we were concerned about there were a number of things that we were concerned about with Bob zubrin's mission." "That we were concerned about with Bob zubrin's mission." "First of all, we thought his with Bob zubrin's mission." "First of all, we thought his estimates of mass were probably first of all, we thought his estimates of mass were probably too optimistic." "Estimates of mass were probably too optimistic." "Didn't have sufficient margins too optimistic." "Didn't have sufficient margins for a variety of things, not the didn't have sufficient margins for a variety of things, not the least of which would be things for a variety of things, not the least of which would be things like provisions for the crew," "least of which would be things like provisions for the crew, the amount of water that would like provisions for the crew, the amount of water that would be required." "The amount of water that would be required." "We thought his ascent vehicle be required." "We thought his ascent vehicle was very large, which meant his we thought his ascent vehicle was very large, which meant his power requirements, his was very large, which meant his power requirements, his propellant requirements, were" "power requirements, his propellant requirements, were much larger than needed to be." "Propellant requirements, were much larger than needed to be." "His trip times out were too much larger than needed to be." "His trip times out were too long, and that, for very little his trip times out were too long, and that, for very little effort, you could get them long, and that, for very little effort, you could get them shorter." "Effort, you could get them shorter." "The other problem was the size shorter." "The other problem was the size of his crew." "The other problem was the size of his crew." "He had a four-person crew." "Of his crew." "He had a four-person crew." "I think virtually every study he had a four-person crew." "I think virtually every study that's been done says that a" "I think virtually every study that's been done says that a four-person crew for a that's been done says that a four-person crew for a three-year type of mission is four-person crew for a three-year type of mission is probably not realistic." "Three-year type of mission is probably not realistic." "Weaver took zubrin into his probably not realistic." "Weaver took zubrin into his office, and the two men worked" "Weaver took zubrin into his office, and the two men worked out compromise mission office, and the two men worked out compromise mission architecture." "Out compromise mission architecture." "First, Weaver wanted three architecture." "First, Weaver wanted three launches for every mission first, Weaver wanted three launches for every mission instead of two." "Launches for every mission instead of two." "The first year, three ships instead of two." "The first year, three ships would launch... a "mav," Mars the first year, three ships would launch..." "a "mav," Mars ascent vehicle, an unoccupied would launch... a "mav," Mars ascent vehicle, an unoccupied hab, and an e.R.V., earth return ascent vehicle, an unoccupied hab, and an e.R.V., earth return vehicle." "Hab, and an e.R.V., earth return vehicle." "The hab and mav would land on vehicle." "The hab and mav would land on the surface and begin producing the hab and mav would land on the surface and begin producing fuel for the return flight and the surface and begin producing fuel for the return flight and air for the crew." "Fuel for the return flight and air for the crew." "These craft would spend two air for the crew." "These craft would spend two solitary years on Mars, allowing these craft would spend two solitary years on Mars, allowing NASA to test all of the systems solitary years on Mars, allowing NASA to test all of the systems before sending a human crew." "NASA to test all of the systems before sending a human crew." "Then, in the third year, three before sending a human crew." "Then, in the third year, three more ships would launch, this then, in the third year, three more ships would launch, this time with the hab occupied by more ships would launch, this time with the hab occupied by astronauts." "Time with the hab occupied by astronauts." "The other two ships are for a astronauts." "The other two ships are for a future mission, unless needed as the other two ships are for a future mission, unless needed as a backup for this crew." "Future mission, unless needed as a backup for this crew." "Once on Mars, the team could a backup for this crew." "Once on Mars, the team could also utilize the first hab." "Once on Mars, the team could also utilize the first hab." "Then, after a year and a half also utilize the first hab." "Then, after a year and a half stay, the crew would climb then, after a year and a half stay, the crew would climb aboard their small capsule and stay, the crew would climb aboard their small capsule and rendezvous with the return ship." "Aboard their small capsule and rendezvous with the return ship." "This ship would carry them back rendezvous with the return ship." "This ship would carry them back home in a roomier environment this ship would carry them back home in a roomier environment than zubrin's e.R.V." "Home in a roomier environment than zubrin's e.R.V. Zubrin called the plan than zubrin's e.R.V. Zubrin called the plan "Mars semi-direct."" "Zubrin called the plan "Mars semi-direct." NASA called it the." ""Mars semi-direct." NASA called it the design reference mission." "NASA called it the design reference mission." "They had a larger crew than design reference mission." "They had a larger crew than we had." "They had a larger crew than we had." "They had bigger ships." "We had." "They had bigger ships." "They had more equipment." "They had bigger ships." "They had more equipment." "They had heavier equipment." "They had more equipment." "They had heavier equipment." "So they had to do the mission in they had heavier equipment." "So they had to do the mission in three launches instead of two." "So they had to do the mission in three launches instead of two." "But it was done with the same three launches instead of two." "But it was done with the same principles of Mars direct." "But it was done with the same principles of Mars direct." "The plan was subjected to the principles of Mars direct." "The plan was subjected to the same cost analysis that tagged the plan was subjected to the same cost analysis that tagged the 90-day report with a same cost analysis that tagged the 90-day report with a $450 billion price tag." "The 90-day report with a $450 billion price tag." "The design reference mission" "$450 billion price tag." "The design reference mission came back at a fraction of the the design reference mission came back at a fraction of the cost... came back at a fraction of the cost..." "$55 billion." "Cost... $55 billion." "Spread out over 10 years, it" "$55 billion." "Spread out over 10 years, it could be done within NASA's spread out over 10 years, it could be done within NASA's existing budget." "Could be done within NASA's existing budget." "The plan made the cover of existing budget." "The plan made the cover of newsweek." "The plan made the cover of newsweek." "Herewasamissionarchitecture newsweek." "Here was a mission architecture that was affordable and could be here was a mission architecture that was affordable and could be done today with existing that was affordable and could be done today with existing technology." "Done today with existing technology." "But NASA's astronauts have not technology." "But NASA's astronauts have not left low-earth orbit since." "With the completion of the international space station and the retiring of the space international space station and the retiring of the space shuttle program, a debate rages the retiring of the space shuttle program, a debate rages over the future of space" "shuttle program, a debate rages over the future of space exploration." "Over the future of space exploration." "Should NASA continue to focus on exploration." "Should NASA continue to focus on low-earth orbit, developing should NASA continue to focus on low-earth orbit, developing technologies for the future?" "Low-earth orbit, developing technologies for the future?" "Or should NASA have a goal, like technologies for the future?" "Or should NASA have a goal, like it did in the 1960s with Apollo?" "Or should NASA have a goal, like it did in the 1960s with Apollo?" "The way we got to the moon it did in the 1960s with Apollo?" "The way we got to the moon was by a presidential imperative the way we got to the moon was by a presidential imperative that demanded that NASA get to was by a presidential imperative that demanded that NASA get to the moon within a decade." "That demanded that NASA get to the moon within a decade." "So NASA was forced to sit down, the moon within a decade." "So NASA was forced to sit down, design a plan for how to do so NASA was forced to sit down, design a plan for how to do that, and then fly the mission." "Design a plan for how to do that, and then fly the mission." "Liftoff." "That, and then fly the mission." "Liftoff." "Roger." "Liftoff." "Roger." "Since that time, without the." "Roger." "Since that time, without the presence of a driving since that time, without the presence of a driving imperative, we engage in presence of a driving imperative, we engage in basically a random set of imperative, we engage in basically a random set of constituency-driven programs" "basically a random set of constituency-driven programs which are justified ad hoc constituency-driven programs which are justified ad hoc afterwards by the argument that which are justified ad hoc afterwards by the argument that they "could prove useful at some" "afterwards by the argument that they "could prove useful at some time in the future," when you they "could prove useful at some time in the future," when you actually have a plan to go" "time in the future," when you actually have a plan to go somewhere." "Actually have a plan to go somewhere." "I think NASA has focused on a somewhere." "I think NASA has focused on a steady process, where the" "I think NASA has focused on a steady process, where the government can't just pull the steady process, where the government can't just pull the plug on their funding." "Government can't just pull the plug on their funding." "I think the Apollo cancellation plug on their funding." "I think the Apollo cancellation was very traumatic for NASA, and" "I think the Apollo cancellation was very traumatic for NASA, and it really transformed NASA from was very traumatic for NASA, and it really transformed NASA from what it was in the '60s to more it really transformed NASA from what it was in the '60s to more of what it is now." "What it was in the '60s to more of what it is now." "If you have a singular program of what it is now." "If you have a singular program like going to Mars, then it is if you have a singular program like going to Mars, then it is very vulnerable to having its like going to Mars, then it is very vulnerable to having its funding pulled." "Very vulnerable to having its funding pulled." "NASA must be funding pulled." "NASA must be destination-driven." "NASA must be destination-driven." "It is the only thing that allows destination-driven." "It is the only thing that allows the agency to be productive." "It is the only thing that allows the agency to be productive." "NASA was 100 times more the agency to be productive." "NASA was 100 times more productive when it was" "NASA was 100 times more productive when it was destination-driven than in the productive when it was destination-driven than in the period when it has not been." "Destination-driven than in the period when it has not been." "And we have stagnated in NASA period when it has not been." "And we have stagnated in NASA since 1973." "And we have stagnated in NASA since 1973." "30 years, more than a since 1973. 30 years, more than a generation, has been wasted." "The American space program's been stagnant for 30 years." "There's a once-in-a-generation been stagnant for 30 years." "There's a once-in-a-generation shot right now to get it moving there's a once-in-a-generation shot right now to get it moving again by giving it a goal shot right now to get it moving again by giving it a goal that'll take it somewhere." "Again by giving it a goal that'll take it somewhere." "So the stakes today are high." "That'll take it somewhere." "So the stakes today are high." "And if you ask me if I am so the stakes today are high." "And if you ask me if I am nervous right now, I..." "Am." "Dr. zubrin." "Why is NASA stuck in low-earth orbit?" "Why is NASA stuck in low-earth orbit?" "The problem with NASA's lack of low-earth orbit?" "The problem with NASA's lack of current achievement is not the problem with NASA's lack of current achievement is not money." "Current achievement is not money." "The problem is lack of focus." "Money." "The problem is lack of focus." "It's lack of a goal." "The problem is lack of focus." "It's lack of a goal." "It shouldn't be humans to Mars it's lack of a goal." "It shouldn't be humans to Mars in 50 years." "It shouldn't be humans to Mars in 50 years." "It should be humans to Mars in in 50 years." "It should be humans to Mars in 10." "It should be humans to Mars in 10." "We can do this." "10." "We can do this." "We do not need gigantic, we can do this." "We do not need gigantic, nuclear-electric spaceships to we do not need gigantic, nuclear-electric spaceships to send people to Mars." "Nuclear-electric spaceships to send people to Mars." "That is pork." "It's nonsense." "Send people to Mars." "That is pork." "It's nonsense." "The primary question I get from that is pork." "It's nonsense." "The primary question I get from the American people is, "why the primary question I get from the American people is, "why aren't we doing this?"" "The American people is, "why aren't we doing this?" There's a big sense of aren't we doing this?" There's a big sense of disappointment, almost verging there's a big sense of disappointment, almost verging on a sense of betrayal!" "Disappointment, almost verging on a sense of betrayal!" "The purpose of spaceships is to on a sense of betrayal!" "The purpose of spaceships is to actually travel across space and the purpose of spaceships is to actually travel across space and go to new worlds, not to hang actually travel across space and go to new worlds, not to hang out in space and observe the" "go to new worlds, not to hang out in space and observe the health effects from doing so." "Out in space and observe the health effects from doing so." "Dr. zubrin, in your health effects from doing so." "Dr. Zubrin, in your testimony, you were very." "Dr. zubrin, in your testimony, you were very passionate, but you also were testimony, you were very passionate, but you also were mad." "Passionate, but you also were mad." "You're mad we haven't done this mad." "You're mad we haven't done this or that this vision has been you're mad we haven't done this or that this vision has been stolen from a generation?" "Or that this vision has been stolen from a generation?" "I guess you could say that." "Stolen from a generation?" "I guess you could say that." "It's like Columbus coming back" "I guess you could say that." "It's like Columbus coming back from the new world, and it's like Columbus coming back from the new world, and ferdinand and Isabella saying, from the new world, and ferdinand and Isabella saying, "eh, so what?" "Forget it." "Ferdinand and Isabella saying, "eh, so what?" "Forget it." "Burn the ships," okay?" ""Eh, so what?" "Forget it." "Burn the ships," okay?" "You know, that's what has burn the ships," okay?" "You know, that's what has happened in this country." "We've won our point that there needs to be a destination." "What we need... the point we needs to be a destination." "What we need..." "the point we need to win on now is that the what we need... the point we need to win on now is that the destination needs to be Mars, need to win on now is that the destination needs to be Mars, and it needs to be soon." "The movement to send humans to Mars in the near-term began at the university of Colorado in to Mars in the near-term began at the university of Colorado in 1978." "At the university of Colorado in 1978." "A graduate student in 1978." "A graduate student in astrogeophysics named a graduate student in astrogeophysics named Chris McKay gave a small seminar astrogeophysics named Chris McKay gave a small seminar on the possibility of" "Chris McKay gave a small seminar on the possibility of introducing life to Mars." "I got interested in Mars in graduate school." "I entered graduate school the graduate school." "I entered graduate school the same year that viking landed on" "I entered graduate school the same year that viking landed on Mars and sent back these images." "Same year that viking landed on Mars and sent back these images." "And it sent back data that" "Mars and sent back these images." "And it sent back data that showed all the elements needed and it sent back data that showed all the elements needed for life are here on this showed all the elements needed for life are here on this planet." "For life are here on this planet." "And yet there's no life here." "Planet." "And yet there's no life here." "And I thought, "well, that's and yet there's no life here." "And I thought, "well, that's odd."" "And I thought, "well, that's odd." It's sort of "the lights are on, odd." It's sort of "the lights are on, and nobody's home."" "It's sort of "the lights are on, and nobody's home." And I thought, "well, that's and nobody's home." And I thought, "well, that's curious," so some of my other" "and I thought, "well, that's curious," so some of my other grad students and I... we sort curious," so some of my other grad students and I... we sort of got together to talk about," "grad students and I... we sort of got together to talk about, "well, if there's no life on of got together to talk about, "well, if there's no life on Mars now, could we put life" ""well, if there's no life on Mars now, could we put life there?"" "Mars now, could we put life there?" And that evolved also into the there?" And that evolved also into the question... well, maybe there and that evolved also into the question..." "well, maybe there was life in the past, and we question... well, maybe there was life in the past, and we could find fossils, evidence, of was life in the past, and we could find fossils, evidence, of it." "Could find fossils, evidence, of it." "Well, how would you do that?" "It." "Well, how would you do that?" "Well, you'd do that by sending well, how would you do that?" "Well, you'd do that by sending people there." "Well, you'd do that by sending people there." "Together with fellow graduate people there." "Together with fellow graduate students, the group decided to together with fellow graduate students, the group decided to put together a small conference students, the group decided to put together a small conference to discuss the matter of human" "put together a small conference to discuss the matter of human Mars exploration." "To discuss the matter of human Mars exploration." "We basically just started a" "Mars exploration." "We basically just started a forum, and we invited everybody we basically just started a forum, and we invited everybody from all the NASA centers and forum, and we invited everybody from all the NASA centers and from all the universities that" "from all the NASA centers and from all the universities that were involved in it." "From all the universities that were involved in it." "And they all came, and it was... were involved in it." "And they all came, and it was... it really was, in retrospect, I and they all came, and it was... it really was, in retrospect, I realize, a very important step it really was, in retrospect, I realize, a very important step toward building a consensus for" "realize, a very important step toward building a consensus for human exploration of Mars." "Toward building a consensus for human exploration of Mars." "In 1996, I published my first human exploration of Mars." "In 1996, I published my first book, "the case for Mars."" "In 1996, I published my first book, "the case for Mars." And the response was phenomenal." "Book, "the case for Mars." And the response was phenomenal." "I got 4,000 letters from all and the response was phenomenal." "I got 4,000 letters from all over the world." "I got 4,000 letters from all over the world." "I had Parisian bankers and over the world." "I had Parisian bankers and 12-year-old kids in Poland and" "I had Parisian bankers and 12-year-old kids in Poland and firemen from saskatoon and 12-year-old kids in Poland and firemen from saskatoon and astronauts, and they're all firemen from saskatoon and astronauts, and they're all writing me and saying, "how do" "astronauts, and they're all writing me and saying, "how do we make this happen?"" "Writing me and saying, "how do we make this happen?"  Bob zubrin came to the third we make this happen?"  Bob zubrin came to the third Mars conference and got very" "Bob zubrin came to the third Mars conference and got very much involved, and he was" "Mars conference and got very much involved, and he was willing and interested in much involved, and he was willing and interested in forming a society, forming a willing and interested in forming a society, forming a group, and organizing." "Forming a society, forming a group, and organizing." "I said, "look, if we could group, and organizing." "I said, "look, if we could pull these people together, if" "I said, "look, if we could pull these people together, if we can get them to work pull these people together, if we can get them to work together, we could have a force we can get them to work together, we could have a force that could actually make humans" "together, we could have a force that could actually make humans to Mars happen."" "That could actually make humans to Mars happen."  The group formed to Mars happen."  The group formed the Mars society." "The group formed the Mars society." "Robert zubrin became the the Mars society." "Robert zubrin became the president." "Robert zubrin became the president." "They held their first convention president." "They held their first convention in 1998." "They held their first convention in 1998." "The convention..." "In 1998." "The convention..." "Was just magic." "The convention..." "Was just magic." "We had no idea how many people was just magic." "We had no idea how many people were coming." "We had no idea how many people were coming." "They were there not just from were coming." "They were there not just from the United States and Canada and they were there not just from the United States and Canada and Europe." "The United States and Canada and Europe." "They were there from Israel." "Europe." "They were there from Israel." "They were there from Mozambique." "They were there from Israel." "They were there from Mozambique." "They were there from they were there from Mozambique." "They were there from New Zealand." "They were there from New Zealand." "It was astonishing." "Since its inception, the Mars society has attracted members worldwide." "Mars society has attracted members worldwide." " Members worldwide." "  Derek Shannon is the head of." "Derek Shannon is the head of the Southern California chapter." "Derek Shannon is the head of the Southern California chapter." "He's met with political leaders the Southern California chapter." "He's met with political leaders from all over the country." "He's met with political leaders from all over the country." "If you make them look at the from all over the country." "If you make them look at the whole Mars vision in historical if you make them look at the whole Mars vision in historical terms, it becomes a much easier whole Mars vision in historical terms, it becomes a much easier sell." "Terms, it becomes a much easier sell." "How will the martians remember sell." "How will the martians remember our century?" "How will the martians remember our century?" "They're probably not gonna our century?" "They're probably not gonna remember our deficit, our wars, they're probably not gonna remember our deficit, our wars, our healthcare." "Remember our deficit, our wars, our healthcare." "Those will be footnotes." "Our healthcare." "Those will be footnotes." "What they'll remember is that, those will be footnotes." "What they'll remember is that, out of all of human history, what they'll remember is that, out of all of human history, there came a generation that out of all of human history, there came a generation that decided to take this amazing" "there came a generation that decided to take this amazing step out into space." "Decided to take this amazing step out into space." "And if you tell politicians that step out into space." "And if you tell politicians that they're the ones whose names and if you tell politicians that they're the ones whose names actually get to be remembered, they're the ones whose names actually get to be remembered, that's when, hopefully, the" "actually get to be remembered, that's when, hopefully, the space program starts going that's when, hopefully, the space program starts going somewhere." "In order to further the knowledge necessary for a manned mission to the red planet, the knowledge necessary for a manned mission to the red planet, the Mars society has been building mission to the red planet, the Mars society has been building research stations around the" "Mars society has been building research stations around the globe, all of them based on the research stations around the globe, all of them based on the design of zubrin's hab module." "Most recently, the society set up a desert research station in Utah." "Up a desert research station in Utah." "Here, international researchers" "Utah." "Here, international researchers and aerospace students come to here, international researchers and aerospace students come to do experiments under the harsh and aerospace students come to do experiments under the harsh desert conditions and learn do experiments under the harsh desert conditions and learn what's necessary to keep a Mars" "desert conditions and learn what's necessary to keep a Mars crew alive and productive." "What's necessary to keep a Mars crew alive and productive." "Basically, what we're doing crew alive and productive." "Basically, what we're doing here is undergoing analog basically, what we're doing here is undergoing analog studies." "Here is undergoing analog studies." "Crews of up to six people at a studies." "Crews of up to six people at a time come together to live in a crews of up to six people at a time come together to live in a full simulation environment for time come together to live in a full simulation environment for up to 14 days." "Full simulation environment for up to 14 days." "So, what that means is every up to 14 days." "So, what that means is every time we go outside the hab, so, what that means is every time we go outside the hab, people have to don space suits." " They have to de-pressurize." " When we go outside, they're." "When we go outside, they're called extra-vehicular when we go outside, they're called extra-vehicular activities." "Called extra-vehicular activities." "They can only be of a certain activities." "They can only be of a certain duration due to the air supply." "They can only be of a certain duration due to the air supply." "We have to recycle all our water duration due to the air supply." "We have to recycle all our water and basically have our own food, we have to recycle all our water and basically have our own food, as well." "It's great to fantasize, but it's another thing when you have to put it together, when the it's another thing when you have to put it together, when the nuts have to fit the bolts." "Like the Apollo missions to the moon, sending human beings to Mars will mean putting people the moon, sending human beings to Mars will mean putting people in harm's way." "To Mars will mean putting people in harm's way." "There are many dangers in outer in harm's way." "There are many dangers in outer space, and many things could go there are many dangers in outer space, and many things could go wrong." "Space, and many things could go wrong." "A serious equipment breakdown wrong." "A serious equipment breakdown could doom the crew to their a serious equipment breakdown could doom the crew to their deaths." "Could doom the crew to their deaths." "Some argue that the risk of deaths." "Some argue that the risk of failure is simply too high." "Some argue that the risk of failure is simply too high." "You know, back in the days failure is simply too high." "You know, back in the days when medieval man was looking you know, back in the days when medieval man was looking out from Europe and thinking when medieval man was looking out from Europe and thinking about exploring in the world," "out from Europe and thinking about exploring in the world, the world was unknown, and about exploring in the world, the world was unknown, and map-makers populated their maps the world was unknown, and map-makers populated their maps with dragons." "Map-makers populated their maps with dragons." "We've got the same thing today." "With dragons." "We've got the same thing today." "There are people who are afraid we've got the same thing today." "There are people who are afraid to go out into space, and there are people who are afraid to go out into space, and they've populated their maps of to go out into space, and they've populated their maps of the solar system with dragons." "They've populated their maps of the solar system with dragons." "You know, we've got cosmic the solar system with dragons." "You know, we've got cosmic radiation." "You know, we've got cosmic radiation." "We've got zero gravity." "Radiation." "We've got zero gravity." "We've got back contamination." "We've got zero gravity." "We've got back contamination." "But these are dragons that we we've got back contamination." "But these are dragons that we can take on." "There are two kinds of radiation astronauts must contend with in outer space... radiation astronauts must contend with in outer space... solar flares and cosmic rays." "Contend with in outer space... solar flares and cosmic rays." "Solar flares are floods of solar flares and cosmic rays." "Solar flares are floods of protons that burst from the sun solar flares are floods of protons that burst from the sun at irregular intervals and would protons that burst from the sun at irregular intervals and would be dangerous to an unshielded" "at irregular intervals and would be dangerous to an unshielded human crew." "Be dangerous to an unshielded human crew." "We are not ready to send human crew." "We are not ready to send humans to Mars right now." "We are not ready to send humans to Mars right now." "We've got to know a lot more humans to Mars right now." "We've got to know a lot more about radiation, and radiation we've got to know a lot more about radiation, and radiation mitigation." "About radiation, and radiation mitigation." "One of the Apollo flights barely mitigation." "One of the Apollo flights barely missed..." "like by a week... a one of the Apollo flights barely missed..." "like by a week... a major solar event." "Missed..." "like by a week... a major solar event." "If it had gone off when the major solar event." "If it had gone off when the Apollo astronauts were on the if it had gone off when the Apollo astronauts were on the way back and forth to the moon," "Apollo astronauts were on the way back and forth to the moon, they would've gotten their way back and forth to the moon, they would've gotten their entire lifetime radiation dose they would've gotten their entire lifetime radiation dose in that one mission." "Entire lifetime radiation dose in that one mission." "And that's just one solar flare." "In that one mission." "And that's just one solar flare." "So that's why we worry about and that's just one solar flare." "So that's why we worry about this." "So that's why we worry about this." "In the Mars direct plan, this." "In the Mars direct plan, zubrin envisions a central in the Mars direct plan, zubrin envisions a central insulated core where a crew can zubrin envisions a central insulated core where a crew can retreat to while the radiation" "insulated core where a crew can retreat to while the radiation passes by." "Retreat to while the radiation passes by." "The core would be surrounded by passes by." "The core would be surrounded by all the provisions of the the core would be surrounded by all the provisions of the mission." "All the provisions of the mission." "This should stop any harmful mission." "This should stop any harmful dose of radiation from reaching this should stop any harmful dose of radiation from reaching the astronauts." "Dose of radiation from reaching the astronauts." "Basically, you use your the astronauts." "Basically, you use your pantry as your storm shelter." "Basically, you use your pantry as your storm shelter." "So, a solar flare happens." "Pantry as your storm shelter." "So, a solar flare happens." "The alarm bell rings." "So, a solar flare happens." "The alarm bell rings." "The crew goes into the storm the alarm bell rings." "The crew goes into the storm shelter." "The crew goes into the storm shelter." "They stay in there, cramped up shelter." "They stay in there, cramped up pretty tight, for a few hours they stay in there, cramped up pretty tight, for a few hours until the all-clear rings, and pretty tight, for a few hours until the all-clear rings, and they come out." "Until the all-clear rings, and they come out." "This is gonna happen once... it they come out." "This is gonna happen once..." "it might happen twice... in the this is gonna happen once... it might happen twice... in the course of the mission." "Might happen twice... in the course of the mission." "The second type of radiation course of the mission." "The second type of radiation is cosmic rays." "The second type of radiation is cosmic rays." "This constant rain of charged is cosmic rays." "This constant rain of charged particles comes from this constant rain of charged particles comes from interstellar space and cannot be particles comes from interstellar space and cannot be avoided without many meters of interstellar space and cannot be avoided without many meters of shielding." "Avoided without many meters of shielding." "We can experience some of this shielding." "We can experience some of this type of radiation on earth at we can experience some of this type of radiation on earth at high altitudes." "Type of radiation on earth at high altitudes." "Airline pilots who spend their high altitudes." "Airline pilots who spend their careers flying high in the airline pilots who spend their careers flying high in the atmosphere can receive almost as careers flying high in the atmosphere can receive almost as much of this radiation atmosphere can receive almost as much of this radiation throughout their life as a Mars" "much of this radiation throughout their life as a Mars astronaut would on a 2 1/2 year throughout their life as a Mars astronaut would on a 2 1/2 year mission." "Astronaut would on a 2 1/2 year mission." "It's a long trip." "Mission." "It's a long trip." "It's a six-month trip there, a it's a long trip." "It's a six-month trip there, a six-month trip back." "It's a six-month trip there, a six-month trip back." "It's probably a year on the six-month trip back." "It's probably a year on the surface." "It's probably a year on the surface." "That's a lot of radiation." "Surface." "That's a lot of radiation." "The best estimates are that that's a lot of radiation." "The best estimates are that the magnitude of that dose is the best estimates are that the magnitude of that dose is not that great... perhaps 60 rem the magnitude of that dose is not that great..." "perhaps 60 rem of radiation scattered over not that great... perhaps 60 rem of radiation scattered over 2 1/2 years." "Of radiation scattered over 2 1/2 years." "Now, 60 rem of radiation 2 1/2 years." "Now, 60 rem of radiation delivered over a long period of now, 60 rem of radiation delivered over a long period of time like that would not create delivered over a long period of time like that would not create any noticeable effects at all." "Time like that would not create any noticeable effects at all." "It would, though, it is any noticeable effects at all." "It would, though, it is believed, increase your it would, though, it is believed, increase your statistical risk of getting believed, increase your statistical risk of getting cancer at some point later in statistical risk of getting cancer at some point later in your life by about 1%." "Cancer at some point later in your life by about 1%." "Right now, if you're an average your life by about 1%." "Right now, if you're an average American and you do not smoke, right now, if you're an average American and you do not smoke, you have a 20% chance you're" "American and you do not smoke, you have a 20% chance you're gonna die of cancer." "You have a 20% chance you're gonna die of cancer." "This would make it 21%." "Gonna die of cancer." "This would make it 21%." "If you're an average American this would make it 21%." "If you're an average American smoker, it's 40%." "If you're an average American smoker, it's 40%." "So, in fact, if you recruited smoker, it's 40%." "So, in fact, if you recruited the Mars crew out of smokers and so, in fact, if you recruited the Mars crew out of smokers and sent them to Mars without their the Mars crew out of smokers and sent them to Mars without their tobacco, you would be reducing" "sent them to Mars without their tobacco, you would be reducing their chance of getting cancer." "With the immense distance from earth never before experienced by a human being, from earth never before experienced by a human being, with the constant dangers of experienced by a human being, with the constant dangers of outer space surrounding their" "with the constant dangers of outer space surrounding their small, life-sustaining craft, outer space surrounding their small, life-sustaining craft, and with nowhere else to go, the small, life-sustaining craft, and with nowhere else to go, the psychological impact on a crew" "and with nowhere else to go, the psychological impact on a crew could be severe." "Psychological impact on a crew could be severe." "Fear is real." "Could be severe." "Fear is real." "I mean, it would be, to me, fear is real." "I mean, it would be, to me, abnormal for a person to not" "I mean, it would be, to me, abnormal for a person to not feel the fear of getting on a abnormal for a person to not feel the fear of getting on a rocket and launching into space" "feel the fear of getting on a rocket and launching into space and going to Mars." "Rocket and launching into space and going to Mars." "So I think fear is a very and going to Mars." "So I think fear is a very normal thing that all so I think fear is a very normal thing that all astronauts, in fact, are normal thing that all astronauts, in fact, are supposed to have." "Astronauts, in fact, are supposed to have." "And I would be afraid to fly supposed to have." "And I would be afraid to fly with someone who does not have and I would be afraid to fly with someone who does not have fear." "With someone who does not have fear." "Some psychologists worry that fear." "Some psychologists worry that cabin fever could set in, and some psychologists worry that cabin fever could set in, and the crew might literally go cabin fever could set in, and the crew might literally go crazy." "The crew might literally go crazy." "A human Mars mission is a crazy." "A human Mars mission is a more rigorous and difficult a human Mars mission is a more rigorous and difficult condition than most of us more rigorous and difficult condition than most of us experience in daily life." "Condition than most of us experience in daily life." "But it is hardly a more experience in daily life." "But it is hardly a more difficult situation than many but it is hardly a more difficult situation than many people have endured throughout difficult situation than many people have endured throughout human history." "People have endured throughout human history." "We could compare the Mars crew human history." "We could compare the Mars crew to the crew of 19th-century or we could compare the Mars crew to the crew of 19th-century or prior sailing vessels, many of to the crew of 19th-century or prior sailing vessels, many of whom were away from home for" "prior sailing vessels, many of whom were away from home for three years, or more than whom were away from home for three years, or more than three years, under conditions in three years, or more than three years, under conditions in which they're eating extremely" "three years, under conditions in which they're eating extremely bad food, without any medical which they're eating extremely bad food, without any medical knowledge to support their bad food, without any medical knowledge to support their health, commanded by brutal" "knowledge to support their health, commanded by brutal officers." "Health, commanded by brutal officers." "In every respect, the crew of a officers." "In every respect, the crew of a human Mars mission, with the in every respect, the crew of a human Mars mission, with the full support of mission support human Mars mission, with the full support of mission support and the whole world cheering for" "full support of mission support and the whole world cheering for them and great rewards waiting and the whole world cheering for them and great rewards waiting for them in life upon their them and great rewards waiting for them in life upon their return, is in a vastly superior" "for them in life upon their return, is in a vastly superior condition." "Return, is in a vastly superior condition." "The Mars direct crew will condition." "The Mars direct crew will spend most of their time inside the Mars direct crew will spend most of their time inside the two-story hab, carefully spend most of their time inside the two-story hab, carefully designed to promote" "the two-story hab, carefully designed to promote psychological wellbeing despite designed to promote psychological wellbeing despite the confinement." "Psychological wellbeing despite the confinement." "The space where I think the confinement." "The space where I think everybody would spend the most the space where I think everybody would spend the most time, just like a lot of homes everybody would spend the most time, just like a lot of homes on earth, would be the" "time, just like a lot of homes on earth, would be the galley/wardroom area." "On earth, would be the galley/wardroom area." "There would be chairs, a table, galley/wardroom area." "There would be chairs, a table, some kind of large screen for there would be chairs, a table, some kind of large screen for entertainment." "Some kind of large screen for entertainment." "You would have individual entertainment." "You would have individual staterooms about 4 or 5 feet you would have individual staterooms about 4 or 5 feet wide." "Staterooms about 4 or 5 feet wide." "The ability for them to wide." "The ability for them to communicate with loved ones, the ability for them to communicate with loved ones, with colleagues on earth, I communicate with loved ones, with colleagues on earth, I think, will be almost unlimited." "With colleagues on earth, I think, will be almost unlimited." "A Mars crew will need to be think, will be almost unlimited." "A Mars crew will need to be carefully chosen and thoroughly a Mars crew will need to be carefully chosen and thoroughly tested to ensure their ability carefully chosen and thoroughly tested to ensure their ability to handle the extreme isolation." "Tested to ensure their ability to handle the extreme isolation." "Wow!" "What a place!" "To handle the extreme isolation." "Wow!" "What a place!" "What a view!" "Isn't it, John?" "Wow!" "What a place!" "What a view!" "Isn't it, John?" "It's absolutely unreal." "What a view!" "Isn't it, John?" "It's absolutely unreal." "John young, who went to the it's absolutely unreal." "John young, who went to the moon, used to say that he could" "John young, who went to the moon, used to say that he could cover the earth by just lifting moon, used to say that he could cover the earth by just lifting his thumb up to it." "Cover the earth by just lifting his thumb up to it." "And he says that when you go to his thumb up to it." "And he says that when you go to Mars, you are going to redefine and he says that when you go to Mars, you are going to redefine the concept of loneliness." "Mars, you are going to redefine the concept of loneliness." "And so it is very important that the concept of loneliness." "And so it is very important that the crew be well-balanced and and so it is very important that the crew be well-balanced and well-chosen so that they can the crew be well-balanced and well-chosen so that they can support each other." "Well-chosen so that they can support each other." "Whoever gets picked to go, support each other." "Whoever gets picked to go, they will have to learn to live whoever gets picked to go, they will have to learn to live together for 2 1/2 years." "They will have to learn to live together for 2 1/2 years." "If you put out a call for together for 2 1/2 years." "If you put out a call for volunteers for the first crew to if you put out a call for volunteers for the first crew to Mars, they'd be lined up coast volunteers for the first crew to Mars, they'd be lined up coast to coast." "Mars, they'd be lined up coast to coast." "Most people recognized what's to coast." "Most people recognized what's left after you go is the good most people recognized what's left after you go is the good you left behind." "Left after you go is the good you left behind." "And to take part in a venture of you left behind." "And to take part in a venture of this character, of such a and to take part in a venture of this character, of such a historic character, of extending this character, of such a historic character, of extending the reach of the human" "historic character, of extending the reach of the human species... this is something of the reach of the human species... this is something of immortal significance." "One of the most bogus threats associated with the Mars mission is the so-called "back associated with the Mars mission is the so-called "back contamination" issue, which is is the so-called "back contamination" issue, which is this notion that you go to Mars" "contamination" issue, which is this notion that you go to Mars and discover these virulent this notion that you go to Mars and discover these virulent disease organisms that you bring and discover these virulent disease organisms that you bring back to earth, and destroy all" "disease organisms that you bring back to earth, and destroy all life on earth." "Back to earth, and destroy all life on earth." "If we discover life on Mars, life on earth." "If we discover life on Mars, one fear is that our earth if we discover life on Mars, one fear is that our earth biology will have no defense one fear is that our earth biology will have no defense against possible martian" "biology will have no defense against possible martian pathogens." "Against possible martian pathogens." "Some argue that missions to Mars pathogens." "Some argue that missions to Mars cannot be risked until we can some argue that missions to Mars cannot be risked until we can prove Mars is free from harmful cannot be risked until we can prove Mars is free from harmful contaminants." "Prove Mars is free from harmful contaminants." "This is completely contaminants." "This is completely nonsensical." "This is completely nonsensical." "There's natural transfer of nonsensical." "There's natural transfer of material from Mars to earth all there's natural transfer of material from Mars to earth all the time." "Material from Mars to earth all the time." "We get around 500 kilograms of the time." "We get around 500 kilograms of unsterilized martian rocks we get around 500 kilograms of unsterilized martian rocks landing on earth every year, and unsterilized martian rocks landing on earth every year, and they have been doing so for the" "landing on earth every year, and they have been doing so for the past three, four billion years." "They have been doing so for the past three, four billion years." "And so if there were martian past three, four billion years." "And so if there were martian organisms that could contaminate and so if there were martian organisms that could contaminate the earth, they've already done organisms that could contaminate the earth, they've already done so." "The earth, they've already done so." "Although the prospect of so." "Although the prospect of martian diseases seems remote, although the prospect of martian diseases seems remote, lawmakers have required that martian diseases seems remote, lawmakers have required that NASA create elaborate protocol lawmakers have required that NASA create elaborate protocol to ensure that any" "NASA create elaborate protocol to ensure that any extraterrestrial material stays to ensure that any extraterrestrial material stays contained." "Extraterrestrial material stays contained." "And like the Apollo astronauts, contained." "And like the Apollo astronauts, who spent 17 days in quarantine and like the Apollo astronauts, who spent 17 days in quarantine after their return from a who spent 17 days in quarantine after their return from a sterile moon, a Mars crew will" "after their return from a sterile moon, a Mars crew will have to be thoroughly tested for sterile moon, a Mars crew will have to be thoroughly tested for any harmful martian pathogens." "Have to be thoroughly tested for any harmful martian pathogens." "The probability is any harmful martian pathogens." "The probability is infinitesimally tiny." "The probability is infinitesimally tiny." "But, nevertheless, this is our infinitesimally tiny." "But, nevertheless, this is our home planet, and it's extremely but, nevertheless, this is our home planet, and it's extremely important, and we have to home planet, and it's extremely important, and we have to protect it." "Important, and we have to protect it." "The idea of a pathogen on protect it." "The idea of a pathogen on Mars is clearly ridiculous, the idea of a pathogen on Mars is clearly ridiculous, because there is no mega-fauna" "Mars is clearly ridiculous, because there is no mega-fauna or mega-flora on Mars for because there is no mega-fauna or mega-flora on Mars for pathogens to infect." "Or mega-flora on Mars for pathogens to infect." "So it is impossible to propose a pathogens to infect." "So it is impossible to propose a credible life cycle for a so it is impossible to propose a credible life cycle for a martian pathogen." "Credible life cycle for a martian pathogen." "The diseases that afflict us martian pathogen." "The diseases that afflict us have been co-evolving with us the diseases that afflict us have been co-evolving with us and our ancestors and have been co-evolving with us and our ancestors and near-relatives for the past and our ancestors and near-relatives for the past three billion years, and they" "near-relatives for the past three billion years, and they are specifically designed to three billion years, and they are specifically designed to live inside the habitat of the are specifically designed to live inside the habitat of the human body and to overcome its" "live inside the habitat of the human body and to overcome its defenses." "Human body and to overcome its defenses." "And they've been engaged in an defenses." "And they've been engaged in an arms race with the human and they've been engaged in an arms race with the human defenses for those three billion arms race with the human defenses for those three billion years." "Defenses for those three billion years." "This is why humans do not get years." "This is why humans do not get diseases from distantly related this is why humans do not get diseases from distantly related species." "Diseases from distantly related species." "For example, I don't know of any species." "For example, I don't know of any person who has ever contracted for example, I don't know of any person who has ever contracted Dutch elm disease, you know?" "Person who has ever contracted Dutch elm disease, you know?" "And trees don't get colds." "When the first Mars lander." "When the first Mars lander touches down, the crew will be when the first Mars lander touches down, the crew will be staring out at a new world, a touches down, the crew will be staring out at a new world, a place that, in four billion" "staring out at a new world, a place that, in four billion years, no eyes have ever seen." "Place that, in four billion years, no eyes have ever seen. [ Static, man speaking years, no eyes have ever seen." "The crew won't be alone." "The crew won't be alone." "Millions of television viewers the crew won't be alone." "Millions of television viewers back home will be watching as millions of television viewers back home will be watching as the first man or woman places back home will be watching as the first man or woman places their footprint into the" "the first man or woman places their footprint into the rust-colored soil." "The crew will savor these moments, for here, someday, a new branch of civilization might moments, for here, someday, a new branch of civilization might begin, and future martians will new branch of civilization might begin, and future martians will remember and celebrate this day." "There is much for the crew to do and explore." "One of their main mission and explore." "One of their main mission objectives will be to search for one of their main mission objectives will be to search for signs of microscopic life." "Objectives will be to search for signs of microscopic life." "To do this, they will follow the signs of microscopic life." "To do this, they will follow the ancient water flows, for on to do this, they will follow the ancient water flows, for on earth, where there is water, ancient water flows, for on earth, where there is water, there is life." "To help the crew in their search, they will have a pressurized rover that allows search, they will have a pressurized rover that allows them to explore in a pressurized rover that allows them to explore in a comfortable, shirt-sleeve" "them to explore in a comfortable, shirt-sleeve environment." "This means the crew can examine a vast area around the landing site during their 18-month stay." "A vast area around the landing site during their 18-month stay." "And there is much to explore." "Site during their 18-month stay." "And there is much to explore." "Mars has 58 different kinds of and there is much to explore." "Mars has 58 different kinds of topography and a surface area" "Mars has 58 different kinds of topography and a surface area equivalent to all the continents topography and a surface area equivalent to all the continents of earth combined." "To me, this is a more subdued surface over here..." "If these explorers can subdued surface over here..." "If these explorers can uncover the fossilized remnants if these explorers can uncover the fossilized remnants of indigenous martian life, they uncover the fossilized remnants of indigenous martian life, they will redefine mankind's of indigenous martian life, they will redefine mankind's understanding of its place in" "will redefine mankind's understanding of its place in the universe." "Understanding of its place in the universe." "And we better press on the universe." "And we better press on to the big Boulder." "And we better press on to the big Boulder." " To the big Boulder." "  For if life arose separately." "For if life arose separately on a planet so close to our own, for if life arose separately on a planet so close to our own, it strongly suggests that the on a planet so close to our own, it strongly suggests that the universe is a biologically rich" "it strongly suggests that the universe is a biologically rich place and full of life." "For some, the ultimate question of Mars, though, is "will there for some, the ultimate question of Mars, though, is "will there be human settlements on the of Mars, though, is "will there be human settlements on the planet?"" "Be human settlements on the planet?" Will Mars become a new branch of planet?" Will Mars become a new branch of human civilization?" "As each subsequent Mars mission explores a wider and wider area of the planet over several explores a wider and wider area of the planet over several years, an ideal site for a base of the planet over several years, an ideal site for a base will be found, probably one with" "years, an ideal site for a base will be found, probably one with a thermal vent that can supply will be found, probably one with a thermal vent that can supply water and power." "A thermal vent that can supply water and power." "At that point, several habs will water and power." "At that point, several habs will be landed in this one spot, with at that point, several habs will be landed in this one spot, with crews that plan to stay for be landed in this one spot, with crews that plan to stay for 4, 8, or even 12 years." "Crews that plan to stay for 4, 8, or even 12 years." "The habs will be interconnected, 4, 8, or even 12 years." "The habs will be interconnected, and a permanent human presence the habs will be interconnected, and a permanent human presence on Mars will be established." "And a permanent human presence on Mars will be established." "This scientific community will on Mars will be established." "This scientific community will have to learn to become this scientific community will have to learn to become self-sufficient, to be able to have to learn to become self-sufficient, to be able to survive on Mars without supplies self-sufficient, to be able to survive on Mars without supplies constantly being sent from" "survive on Mars without supplies constantly being sent from earth." "Constantly being sent from earth." "But unlike any other planet in earth." "But unlike any other planet in the solar system besides earth, but unlike any other planet in the solar system besides earth, Mars has all of the fundamentals the solar system besides earth, Mars has all of the fundamentals needed to make this possible." "Mars has all of the fundamentals needed to make this possible." "Its 24-hour-and-37-minute day is needed to make this possible." "Its 24-hour-and-37-minute day is critical for growing plants." "Its 24-hour-and-37-minute day is critical for growing plants." "It has all of the elements critical for growing plants." "It has all of the elements necessary for creating building it has all of the elements necessary for creating building materials like plastics, metals, necessary for creating building materials like plastics, metals, and glass." "Materials like plastics, metals, and glass." "And it has oceans of water and glass." "And it has oceans of water frozen into the soil." "And it has oceans of water frozen into the soil." "If we can develop this craft frozen into the soil." "If we can develop this craft of living on Mars, then Mars if we can develop this craft of living on Mars, then Mars becomes inhabitable, not of living on Mars, then Mars becomes inhabitable, not immediately physically, but" "becomes inhabitable, not immediately physically, but intellectually." "Immediately physically, but intellectually." "I mean, look." "Intellectually." "I mean, look." "What determines whether an" "I mean, look." "What determines whether an environment is habitable or not?" "What determines whether an environment is habitable or not?" "Is Colorado habitable?" "Environment is habitable or not?" "Is Colorado habitable?" "Is Colorado habitable?" "We're not naturally adapted to." "We're not naturally adapted to live in Colorado." "We're not naturally adapted to live in Colorado." "We're tropical animals." "Live in Colorado." "We're tropical animals." "No one could survive a single we're tropical animals." "No one could survive a single winter night here without no one could survive a single winter night here without technology such as clothing, winter night here without technology such as clothing, efficient use of fire." "Technology such as clothing, efficient use of fire." "Efficient use of fire." "We invented our way into." "We invented our way into becoming people that could we invented our way into becoming people that could colonize such hostile becoming people that could colonize such hostile environments." "Eventually, with a lot of ingenuity and invention, the scientists will learn to live ingenuity and invention, the scientists will learn to live off the land." "Scientists will learn to live off the land." "They will grow crops in the off the land." "They will grow crops in the iron-rich but potassium-poor they will grow crops in the iron-rich but potassium-poor soil." "Iron-rich but potassium-poor soil." "And they will produce oxygen and soil." "And they will produce oxygen and energy from the water and and they will produce oxygen and energy from the water and atmosphere." "Sooner or later, children will be born..." "the first true martians." "Be born... the first true martians." "They will grow up to see Mars as martians." "They will grow up to see Mars as their home." "They will grow up to see Mars as their home." "With time, more and more people their home." "With time, more and more people will arrive." "With time, more and more people will arrive." "These won't only be scientists, will arrive." "These won't only be scientists, but settlers... people who plan these won't only be scientists, but settlers... people who plan to stay." "But settlers... people who plan to stay." "They may come for all kinds of to stay." "They may come for all kinds of reasons, but to them, Mars will they may come for all kinds of reasons, but to them, Mars will be a chance to start over, to reasons, but to them, Mars will be a chance to start over, to build a new life for themselves." "Be a chance to start over, to build a new life for themselves." "The well of human social thought is not exhausted by the present age, and I don't think thought is not exhausted by the present age, and I don't think will ever be exhausted." "Present age, and I don't think will ever be exhausted." "There will always be people with will ever be exhausted." "There will always be people with new ideas on how humans should there will always be people with new ideas on how humans should live together." "New ideas on how humans should live together." "With Mars so far away, the live together." "With Mars so far away, the hold of earth governments on with Mars so far away, the hold of earth governments on their colonies will be tenuous." "Hold of earth governments on their colonies will be tenuous." "The martians will need to govern their colonies will be tenuous." "The martians will need to govern themselves." "Mars is not gonna be a utopia." "Mars is gonna be a lamp." "Utopia." "Mars is gonna be a lamp." "It's an open frontier." "Mars is gonna be a lamp." "It's an open frontier." "It's a place where things are it's an open frontier." "It's a place where things are gonna be tried out." "It's a place where things are gonna be tried out." "I think we'll see a lot of noble gonna be tried out." "I think we'll see a lot of noble experiments on Mars." "I think we'll see a lot of noble experiments on Mars." "Perhaps some of these martian experiments on Mars." "Perhaps some of these martian colonies, with their novel ideas perhaps some of these martian colonies, with their novel ideas based on the best thought the colonies, with their novel ideas based on the best thought the 21st century has to offer... based on the best thought the 21st century has to offer... maybe they'll find ways in which" "21st century has to offer... maybe they'll find ways in which humans can create societies that maybe they'll find ways in which humans can create societies that are more humane and offer more humans can create societies that are more humane and offer more opportunity for human potential." "The ultimate dream of the martians will be to terraform their planet... to make Mars as martians will be to terraform their planet..." "to make Mars as hospitable as earth." "Their planet... to make Mars as hospitable as earth." "This may not be as big a fantasy hospitable as earth." "This may not be as big a fantasy as it seems." "This may not be as big a fantasy as it seems." "Here we are on earth, a world as it seems." "Here we are on earth, a world that's very sophisticated and here we are on earth, a world that's very sophisticated and developed and complete." "That's very sophisticated and developed and complete." "And anything we do is just a developed and complete." "And anything we do is just a subtraction." "And anything we do is just a subtraction." "It's because we live in such a subtraction." "It's because we live in such a biologically rich planet." "It's because we live in such a biologically rich planet." "When we go to Mars, we have an biologically rich planet." "When we go to Mars, we have an opportunity that we don't have when we go to Mars, we have an opportunity that we don't have on earth." "Opportunity that we don't have on earth." "Here's a planet that's died." "On earth." "Here's a planet that's died." "Here's a world that's not full here's a planet that's died." "Here's a world that's not full of biology and probably doesn't here's a world that's not full of biology and probably doesn't have any at all." "Of biology and probably doesn't have any at all." "Well, there we can actually do have any at all." "Well, there we can actually do something to help." "Once there are large human settlements on Mars that would have significant industrial settlements on Mars that would have significant industrial capability, we could actually have significant industrial capability, we could actually start addressing ourselves to capability, we could actually start addressing ourselves to the question of transforming the" "start addressing ourselves to the question of transforming the martian environment itself... the question of transforming the martian environment itself... terraforming Mars, as it's martian environment itself..." "terraforming Mars, as it's called." "Terraforming Mars, as it's called." "Because Mars was once a warm and called." "Because Mars was once a warm and wet planet, and it could be made because Mars was once a warm and wet planet, and it could be made so again through human wet planet, and it could be made so again through human engineering efforts." "So again through human engineering efforts." "With daytime temperatures in engineering efforts." "With daytime temperatures in the martian tropical zone with daytime temperatures in the martian tropical zone averaging around 0 degrees the martian tropical zone averaging around 0 degrees centigrade, and with an averaging around 0 degrees centigrade, and with an atmosphere only 1% as thick as" "centigrade, and with an atmosphere only 1% as thick as earth's, exposure to these atmosphere only 1% as thick as earth's, exposure to these elements by a human without a earth's, exposure to these elements by a human without a space suit would be instantly" "elements by a human without a space suit would be instantly fatal." "Space suit would be instantly fatal." "The first step to terraforming fatal." "The first step to terraforming Mars and bringing it back to the first step to terraforming Mars and bringing it back to life will be for the martian" "Mars and bringing it back to life will be for the martian colonists to warm up their life will be for the martian colonists to warm up their planet." "Colonists to warm up their planet." "Well, we know how to warm up planet." "Well, we know how to warm up planets." "Well, we know how to warm up planets." "We're doing it on earth by planets." "We're doing it on earth by putting gases in the atmosphere." "We're doing it on earth by putting gases in the atmosphere." "On earth, it's not a good idea putting gases in the atmosphere." "On earth, it's not a good idea to warm up the planet." "On earth, it's not a good idea to warm up the planet." "The temperature was just fine, to warm up the planet." "The temperature was just fine, thank you." "The temperature was just fine, thank you." "We don't need it any warmer thank you." "We don't need it any warmer here." "We don't need it any warmer here." "But in principle, if you could here." "But in principle, if you could trap the sunlight reaching Mars but in principle, if you could trap the sunlight reaching Mars today... every single photon trap the sunlight reaching Mars today... every single photon that's hitting Mars..." "Mars today... every single photon that's hitting Mars..." "Mars would warm up in about 10 years." "That's hitting Mars..." "Mars would warm up in about 10 years." "Well, obviously, you can't trap would warm up in about 10 years." "Well, obviously, you can't trap every single photon that's well, obviously, you can't trap every single photon that's hitting Mars, but you can trap every single photon that's hitting Mars, but you can trap about 10% of them with the" "hitting Mars, but you can trap about 10% of them with the greenhouse effect." "About 10% of them with the greenhouse effect." "So that would imply that Mars greenhouse effect." "So that would imply that Mars could warm up in about so that would imply that Mars could warm up in about 100 years." "Could warm up in about 100 years." "Well, 100 years is a long time, 100 years." "Well, 100 years is a long time, but it's not astronomically well, 100 years is a long time, but it's not astronomically long." "But it's not astronomically long." "One idea is to build small, long." "One idea is to build small, automated factories that produce one idea is to build small, automated factories that produce super-greenhouse gases with no automated factories that produce super-greenhouse gases with no ozone-depleting side effects." "Super-greenhouse gases with no ozone-depleting side effects." "Although these gases would be ozone-depleting side effects." "Although these gases would be unwelcome on earth, for the although these gases would be unwelcome on earth, for the martians, they would be an unwelcome on earth, for the martians, they would be an efficient way to trap heat." "Martians, they would be an efficient way to trap heat." "Then, within a few decades, efficient way to trap heat." "Then, within a few decades, we would raise Mars by more than then, within a few decades, we would raise Mars by more than 10 degrees centigrade." "We would raise Mars by more than 10 degrees centigrade." "And if you did that, that would 10 degrees centigrade." "And if you did that, that would cause massive amounts of and if you did that, that would cause massive amounts of carbon dioxide that is currently cause massive amounts of carbon dioxide that is currently adsorbed into the martian soil" "carbon dioxide that is currently adsorbed into the martian soil to start to out-gas." "Adsorbed into the martian soil to start to out-gas." "Carbon dioxide is also a to start to out-gas." "Carbon dioxide is also a natural greenhouse gas." "Carbon dioxide is also a natural greenhouse gas." "As it builds up in the natural greenhouse gas." "As it builds up in the atmosphere, more and more heat as it builds up in the atmosphere, more and more heat will be trapped, which will in atmosphere, more and more heat will be trapped, which will in turn cause more co-2 to out-gas." "Will be trapped, which will in turn cause more co-2 to out-gas." "The process will become turn cause more co-2 to out-gas." "The process will become automatic, and as the atmosphere the process will become automatic, and as the atmosphere thickens, Mars will eventually automatic, and as the atmosphere thickens, Mars will eventually reach a state of equilibrium and" "thickens, Mars will eventually reach a state of equilibrium and stay warm naturally." "The rise in air pressure would mean that the human colonists the rise in air pressure would mean that the human colonists could discard their pressure mean that the human colonists could discard their pressure suits and walk around the could discard their pressure suits and walk around the surface of Mars carrying only a" "suits and walk around the surface of Mars carrying only a supply of oxygen." "And as the temperatures rise on Mars, water frozen into the soil will begin to melt out." "Mars, water frozen into the soil will begin to melt out." "And for the second time in its will begin to melt out." "And for the second time in its history, Mars would have liquid and for the second time in its history, Mars would have liquid water on its surface." "Dry martian rivers will start to flow." " Flow." " Seas will rise, and there will." "Seas will rise, and there will be rain clouds in the skies." "Seas will rise, and there will be rain clouds in the skies." "The return of Mars to its warm and wet stage will make it a fertile environment for life." "And wet stage will make it a fertile environment for life." "Any indigenous martian organisms fertile environment for life." "Any indigenous martian organisms lying dormant will begin to any indigenous martian organisms lying dormant will begin to grow, and Mars will be full of lying dormant will begin to grow, and Mars will be full of martians." "If no native life emerges or that life is all dead, then humans could begin addressing that life is all dead, then humans could begin addressing the idea of bringing life from humans could begin addressing the idea of bringing life from earth." "The idea of bringing life from earth." "At first, it would be simple earth." "At first, it would be simple organisms, perhaps genetically at first, it would be simple organisms, perhaps genetically engineered, that would thrive in organisms, perhaps genetically engineered, that would thrive in the martian environment." "Engineered, that would thrive in the martian environment." "Then more complex plants could the martian environment." "Then more complex plants could be introduced." "Then more complex plants could be introduced." "The plants would be right at be introduced." "The plants would be right at home in the carbon dioxide the plants would be right at home in the carbon dioxide atmosphere." "Home in the carbon dioxide atmosphere." "And with no competition and a atmosphere." "And with no competition and a whole planet to cover, they and with no competition and a whole planet to cover, they could transform Mars into a whole planet to cover, they could transform Mars into a green world." "Warming Mars so that it sustains life is rapid, but then the slow process of making the atmosphere life is rapid, but then the slow process of making the atmosphere breathable for humans and process of making the atmosphere breathable for humans and animals starts, and that's done" "breathable for humans and animals starts, and that's done by plants." "Animals starts, and that's done by plants." "Although the process will happen by plants." "Although the process will happen naturally, if the colonists although the process will happen naturally, if the colonists can't find a quicker way, it naturally, if the colonists can't find a quicker way, it will take tens of thousands of" "can't find a quicker way, it will take tens of thousands of years." "Will take tens of thousands of years." "This is a philosophical years." "This is a philosophical debate." "This is a philosophical debate." "Many people think the universe debate." "Many people think the universe has a big sign on it that says many people think the universe has a big sign on it that says "do not touch."" "Has a big sign on it that says "do not touch." "Leave it alone." ""Do not touch." "Leave it alone." "It was made this way." ""Leave it alone." "It was made this way." "It is not in our purview as it was made this way." "It is not in our purview as human beings to change it is not in our purview as human beings to change anything."" "Human beings to change anything." I can respect that view, anything." I can respect that view, although I disagree with it." "I can respect that view, although I disagree with it." "I think the universe has a big although I disagree with it." "I think the universe has a big sign on it that says, "go forth" "I think the universe has a big sign on it that says, "go forth and spread life."" "Sign on it that says, "go forth and spread life." Because when I look around the and spread life." Because when I look around the universe, I think life is the because when I look around the universe, I think life is the most amazing thing we see." "Universe, I think life is the most amazing thing we see." "It is just incredible." "Most amazing thing we see." "It is just incredible." "And we human beings are uniquely it is just incredible." "And we human beings are uniquely positioned to help spread life and we human beings are uniquely positioned to help spread life from this little, tiny planet positioned to help spread life from this little, tiny planet which it seems to have been" "from this little, tiny planet which it seems to have been started on, beyond." "Which it seems to have been started on, beyond." "And that's our gift." "Started on, beyond." "And that's our gift." "Earth's gift to the universe, I and that's our gift." "Earth's gift to the universe, I think, is the gift of life." "This scheme for terraforming Mars is based on 20th-century notions of engineering." "Mars is based on 20th-century notions of engineering." "I don't think it is how Mars notions of engineering." "I don't think it is how Mars will actually be terraformed." "I don't think it is how Mars will actually be terraformed." "What you have here is a will actually be terraformed." "What you have here is a 20th-century mind trying to what you have here is a 20th-century mind trying to address a 22nd-century problem." "20th-century mind trying to address a 22nd-century problem." "And, so, I think Mars will be address a 22nd-century problem." "And, so, I think Mars will be terraformed by the 23rd century, and, so, I think Mars will be terraformed by the 23rd century, not by the 33rd but the 23rd." "Terraformed by the 23rd century, not by the 33rd but the 23rd." "Things that would seem utterly not by the 33rd but the 23rd." "Things that would seem utterly fantastical to us is how it will things that would seem utterly fantastical to us is how it will actually be done." "Fantastical to us is how it will actually be done." "But it'll be done." "We're at a crossroads today." "We either muster the courage to go, or we risk the possibility we either muster the courage to go, or we risk the possibility of stagnation and decay." "Go, or we risk the possibility of stagnation and decay." "The exploration of the solar of stagnation and decay." "The exploration of the solar system and expanding of life the exploration of the solar system and expanding of life through the rest of our solar system and expanding of life through the rest of our solar system and someday beyond is the" "through the rest of our solar system and someday beyond is the kind of thing that will keep our system and someday beyond is the kind of thing that will keep our civilization going." "Kind of thing that will keep our civilization going." "We're explorers by nature." "Civilization going." "We're explorers by nature." "Eventually, we will go to the we're explorers by nature." "Eventually, we will go to the stars." "Eventually, we will go to the stars." "The question is, when will we stars." "The question is, when will we start?" "The question is, when will we start?" "I think a manned Mars mission start?" "I think a manned Mars mission could happen within 15 years." "I think a manned Mars mission could happen within 15 years." "Some days, I'm very could happen within 15 years." "Some days, I'm very optimistic." "Some days, I'm very optimistic." "I think we can do it in 10, optimistic." "I think we can do it in 10, maybe 15 years." "I think we can do it in 10, maybe 15 years." "Other days, I see all the maybe 15 years." "Other days, I see all the political things that go into other days, I see all the political things that go into the space program." "Political things that go into the space program." "I look back on the 30 years the space program." "I look back on the 30 years we've been bogged down, and I" "I look back on the 30 years we've been bogged down, and I get more negative about it, and we've been bogged down, and I get more negative about it, and I say it's going to be another" "get more negative about it, and I say it's going to be another three decades or four decades." "I say it's going to be another three decades or four decades." "I would be surprised if we three decades or four decades." "I would be surprised if we got to Mars prior to 2025 or" "I would be surprised if we got to Mars prior to 2025 or 2030." "Got to Mars prior to 2025 or 2030." "In may of 2018." "Understanding the various political obstacles that exist and what we need to fight political obstacles that exist and what we need to fight through to get the program and what we need to fight through to get the program started, I believe that we will" "through to get the program started, I believe that we will be on Mars by 2020." "You have to believe in hope." "You have to believe in the future." "You have to believe in the future." "There are more and more people future." "There are more and more people coming around to the point of there are more and more people coming around to the point of view that a positive future for coming around to the point of view that a positive future for humanity requires human" "view that a positive future for humanity requires human expansion to space." "Humanity requires human expansion to space." "We will eventually break through expansion to space." "We will eventually break through the forces of inertia that have we will eventually break through the forces of inertia that have been holding this thing back."