"They're" "They're out there." "They're out there." "out there." "Lurking in the" "Lurking in the vastness of space." "Lurking in the vastness of space." "vastness of space." "Planets so weird, even" "Planets so weird, even science fiction could not" "Planets so weird, even science fiction could not science fiction could not foresee them." "foresee them." "foresee them." "For the first time ever," "For the first time ever, scientists are discovering" "For the first time ever, scientists are discovering scientists are discovering alien worlds beyond alien worlds beyond our solar system." "alien worlds beyond our solar system." "our solar system." "Places where ice is hot." "Places where ice is hot." "Places where ice is hot." "And rain is made of iron." "And rain is made of iron." "And rain is made of iron." "They are uncharted," "They are uncharted, unearthly and" "They are uncharted, unearthly and unearthly and unpredictable." "unpredictable." "unpredictable." "And somewhere, hidden" "And somewhere, hidden among these strange new" "And somewhere, hidden among these strange new among these strange new worlds, scientists seek worlds, scientists seek the greatest discoveries worlds, scientists seek the greatest discoveries the greatest discoveries of all." "of all." "of all." "Planets like ours." "Planets like ours." "Planets like ours." "Alien Earths." "March 6, 2009." "March 6, 2009." "March 6, 2009." "This Delta 2 rocket is" "This Delta 2 rocket is going through its final" "This Delta 2 rocket is going through its final going through its final pre-flight check." "pre-flight check." "pre-flight check." "It is the start of an" "It is the start of an extraordinarily ambitious" "It is the start of an extraordinarily ambitious extraordinarily ambitious mission." "mission." "mission." "The Kepler Space" "The Kepler Space Observatory is hunting for" "The Kepler Space Observatory is hunting for" "Observatory is hunting for planets like earth within planets like earth within a region of 100,000 stars." "planets like earth within a region of 100,000 stars." "a region of 100,000 stars." "It is the culmination of" "It is the culmination of a journey that began more" "It is the culmination of a journey that began more a journey that began more than a decade ago with than a decade ago with one of the most profound than a decade ago with one of the most profound one of the most profound scientific" "scientific discoveries ever made." "scientific discoveries ever made." "discoveries ever made." "1995." "1995." "1995." "Swiss astronomer, Michel" "Swiss astronomer, Michel Mayor and his team," "Swiss astronomer, Michel Mayor and his team," "Mayor and his team, make a routine observation make a routine observation of stars in the make a routine observation of stars in the of stars in the constellation Pegasus constellation Pegasus located 50 light years constellation Pegasus located 50 light years" "located 50 light years away." "away." "away." "But the instruments" "But the instruments show something strange." "But the instruments show something strange." "show something strange." "One star is violently" "One star is violently lurching and wobbling." "One star is violently lurching and wobbling." " lurching and wobbling." " What we" "What we discovered is that one of" "What we discovered is that one of discovered is that one of these stars has a velocity these stars has a velocity changing with time." "these stars has a velocity changing with time." " changing with time." " What is powerful" "What is powerful enough to disturb a star" "What is powerful enough to disturb a star enough to disturb a star the size of our sun?" "the size of our sun?" "the size of our sun?" "Mayor offers a radical" " Mayor offers a radical - a planet." " Mayor offers a radical - a planet." "a planet." "But no one has ever seen" "But no one has ever seen a planet around another" "But no one has ever seen a planet around another a planet around another Sun-like star." "Sun-like star." "Sun-like star." " The problem" "The problem in detecting planets" "The problem in detecting planets in detecting planets around other stars is around other stars is that as a planet orbits a around other stars is that as a planet orbits a that as a planet orbits a nearby star, that planet" "nearby star, that planet gets lost because of its nearby star, that planet gets lost because of its gets lost because of its feeble light in the glare feeble light in the glare of the very bright star." "feeble light in the glare of the very bright star." " of the very bright star." " In" "In spite of the odds," "In spite of the odds, spite of the odds, Mayor relies on his data" "Mayor relies on his data and is convinced the" "Mayor relies on his data and is convinced the and is convinced the wobbles are caused by the wobbles are caused by the gravitational pull of an wobbles are caused by the gravitational pull of an gravitational pull of an orbiting planet." "orbiting planet." " orbiting planet." " When I read" "When I read this claim from Michel" "When I read this claim from Michel this claim from Michel Mayor, I was" "Mayor, I was very skeptical." "Mayor, I was very skeptical." "very skeptical." "There had been many false" "There had been many false claims of the first planet" "There had been many false claims of the first planet claims of the first planet ever discovered ever discovered around another star, ever discovered around another star, around another star, and I thought to myself, and I thought to myself, oh boy here we go again." "and I thought to myself, oh boy here we go again." "oh boy here we go again." "So I decided to observe" "So I decided to observe the star on 4 consecutive" "So I decided to observe the star on 4 consecutive the star on 4 consecutive nights, and stunningly the nights, and stunningly the star was shown to wobble nights, and stunningly the star was shown to wobble star was shown to wobble exactly as Michel" "exactly as Michel Mayor had said." "exactly as Michel Mayor had said." " Mayor had said." " Michel Mayor" "Michel Mayor and his team-mate," "Michel Mayor and his team-mate, and his team-mate, Didier Queloz, announce" "Didier Queloz, announce their discovery." "Didier Queloz, announce their discovery." "their discovery." "It rocks the" "It rocks the scientific community." "It rocks the scientific community." " scientific community." " They have" "They have found for the first time," "They have found for the first time, found for the first time, reproducible, confirmable reproducible, confirmable evidence of the existence reproducible, confirmable evidence of the existence evidence of the existence of a planet around of a planet around a sunlike star." "of a planet around a sunlike star." " a sunlike star." " Officially" "Officially called 51 Pegasi b," "Officially called 51 Pegasi b, called 51 Pegasi b, the planet is the planet is nicknamed Bellerophon ." "the planet is nicknamed Bellerophon ." "nicknamed Bellerophon ." "in honor of the Greek in honor of the Greek hero who tamed the in honor of the Greek hero who tamed the winged horse, Pegasus winged horse, Pegasus" "It is a planet that" "It is a planet that breaks all the rules." "It is a planet that breaks all the rules." "breaks all the rules." "Bellerophon roasts in" "Bellerophon roasts in the blazing starlight," "Bellerophon roasts in the blazing starlight, the blazing starlight, at temperatures of roughly at temperatures of roughly 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit." "at temperatures of roughly 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit." "1,800 degrees Fahrenheit." "It is nearly 150 times" "It is nearly 150 times more massive than Earth" "It is nearly 150 times more massive than Earth more massive than Earth and is a gas giant and is a gas giant like Jupiter." "and is a gas giant like Jupiter." " like Jupiter." " A gas giant" "A gas giant is a planet made mostly of" "A gas giant is a planet made mostly of is a planet made mostly of hydrogen and helium." "hydrogen and helium." "hydrogen and helium." "Only the outer" "Only the outer layers are gas." "Only the outer layers are gas." "layers are gas." "But, inside, hydrogen and" "But, inside, hydrogen and helium is compressed to" "But, inside, hydrogen and helium is compressed to helium is compressed to huge, huge, huge, huge, huge pressures." "huge, huge, huge pressures." "huge pressures." "It doesn't resemble" "It doesn't resemble a gas at all." "It doesn't resemble a gas at all." " a gas at all." " Unlike anything" "Unlike anything found in our solar system," "Unlike anything found in our solar system, found in our solar system, this is an entirely this is an entirely new class of planet, this is an entirely new class of planet, new class of planet, what scientists" "what scientists call a Hot Jupiter." "what scientists call a Hot Jupiter." " call a Hot Jupiter." " If you go to" "If you go to Hawaii and see the lava" "If you go to Hawaii and see the lava" "Hawaii and see the lava flow there." "flow there." "flow there." "That's how hot," "That's how hot, a Hot Jupiter is." "That's how hot, a Hot Jupiter is." "a Hot Jupiter is." "It's very, very hot." "It's very, very hot." " It's very, very hot." " The earth is" "The earth is a comfortable 93 million" "The earth is a comfortable 93 million a comfortable 93 million miles away from the Sun." "miles away from the Sun." " miles away from the Sun." " These Hot" "These Hot Jupiters are roughly a 100" "These Hot Jupiters are roughly a 100" "Jupiters are roughly a 100 times closer and so, the times closer and so, the amount of sunlight that times closer and so, the amount of sunlight that amount of sunlight that they get is 10,000 they get is 10,000 times larger." "they get is 10,000 times larger." " times larger." " If this" "If this represents a star and this" "If this represents a star and this represents a star and this a Hot Jupiter, a Hot a Hot Jupiter, a Hot Jupiter is three to four a Hot Jupiter, a Hot Jupiter is three to four" "Jupiter is three to four stellar diameters stellar diameters away from the star." "stellar diameters away from the star." "away from the star." "So that would be" "So that would be one, two, three." "So that would be one, two, three." "one, two, three." "This is how close a hot" "This is how close a hot Jupiter would be to its" "This is how close a hot Jupiter would be to its" "Jupiter would be to its star." "star." "star." "Hot Jupiters are" "Hot Jupiters are tidally-locked." "Hot Jupiters are tidally-locked." "tidally-locked." "They present the same face" "They present the same face to the star at all times." "They present the same face to the star at all times." "to the star at all times." "Just like the moon" "Just like the moon does to earth." "Just like the moon does to earth." " does to earth." " It's going" "It's going to be permanent daylight" "It's going to be permanent daylight to be permanent daylight on one side and permanent on one side and permanent nighttime on the back." "on one side and permanent nighttime on the back." "nighttime on the back." "If I were stuck" "If I were stuck on a Hot Jupiter," "If I were stuck on a Hot Jupiter, on a Hot Jupiter, I would want to be on the" "I would want to be on the back side and hope that" "I would want to be on the back side and hope that back side and hope that some of the heat from the some of the heat from the front side facing the star some of the heat from the front side facing the star" "front side facing the star would make its way would make its way around at the back." "would make its way around at the back." " around at the back." " The variations" "The variations in temperature make" "The variations in temperature make in temperature make Bellerophon's atmosphere" "Bellerophon's atmosphere extremely windy." "Bellerophon's atmosphere extremely windy." "extremely windy." "The wind howls at" "The wind howls at thousands of miles per" "The wind howls at thousands of miles per thousands of miles per hour, far beyond anything hour, far beyond anything we could ever withstand." "hour, far beyond anything we could ever withstand." "we could ever withstand." "The heat blast guarantees" "The heat blast guarantees water vapor cannot exist," "The heat blast guarantees water vapor cannot exist, water vapor cannot exist, but that doesn't mean but that doesn't mean there is no rain." "but that doesn't mean there is no rain." " there is no rain." " It's far too" "It's far too hot for water or liquid" "It's far too hot for water or liquid hot for water or liquid clouds to form here." "clouds to form here." "clouds to form here." "But instead, these clouds" "But instead, these clouds would be made out of iron." "But instead, these clouds would be made out of iron." " would be made out of iron." " Iron vapor can" "Iron vapor can exist at temperatures much" "Iron vapor can exist at temperatures much exist at temperatures much higher than water." "higher than water." "higher than water." "And because of that," "And because of that, things could get a little" "And because of that, things could get a little things could get a little messy." "messy." " messy." " You better" "You better have an umbrella that's" "You better have an umbrella that's have an umbrella that's pretty sturdy because the pretty sturdy because the iron is going to start pretty sturdy because the iron is going to start iron is going to start coating your umbrella" "coating your umbrella very rapidly, coating your umbrella very rapidly, very rapidly, and making it and making it extremely heavy, and making it extremely heavy, extremely heavy, and just crush and just crush that umbrella." "and just crush that umbrella." " that umbrella." " The sky overhead" "The sky overhead is filled with dancing" "The sky overhead is filled with dancing is filled with dancing curtains of color." "curtains of color." "curtains of color." "Charged particles from the" "Charged particles from the nearby star make auroras" "Charged particles from the nearby star make auroras nearby star make auroras far more extreme than the far more extreme than the northern lights on Earth." "far more extreme than the northern lights on Earth." "northern lights on Earth." "There is something even" "There is something even more unique about this" "There is something even more unique about this more unique about this newly discovered world." "newly discovered world." "newly discovered world." "Bellerophon orbits its sun" "Bellerophon orbits its sun in a blistering 4.2 days." "Bellerophon orbits its sun in a blistering 4.2 days." " in a blistering 4.2 days." " No" "No self-respecting planet" "No self-respecting planet self-respecting planet goes around a goes around a star in 4.2 days." "goes around a star in 4.2 days." "star in 4.2 days." "None of the planets in our" "None of the planets in our solar system take such a" "None of the planets in our solar system take such a solar system take such a short amount of time." "short amount of time." " short amount of time." " For scientists," "For scientists, the tiny orbit challenges" "For scientists, the tiny orbit challenges the tiny orbit challenges long held notions long held notions of how planets form." "long held notions of how planets form." " of how planets form." " The fact that" "The fact that the planet was orbiting" "The fact that the planet was orbiting the planet was orbiting every four days every four days was a total puzzle, every four days was a total puzzle, was a total puzzle, until one night, in the" "until one night, in the middle of the night, until one night, in the middle of the night, middle of the night, I woke up and said, Well," "I woke up and said, Well, this must be proof that" "I woke up and said, Well, this must be proof that this must be proof that planets migrate inwards." "planets migrate inwards." "planets migrate inwards." "They don't stay" "They don't stay put where they are." "They don't stay put where they are." " put where they are." " The key to the" "The key to the puzzle is found in how" "The key to the puzzle is found in how puzzle is found in how planets are made." "planets are made." " planets are made." " Planets" "Planets are a byproduct of star" "Planets are a byproduct of star are a byproduct of star formation." "formation." "formation." "When stars form, they have" "When stars form, they have a disc of dust and debris" "When stars form, they have a disc of dust and debris a disc of dust and debris around them and out of around them and out of that debris, planets form." "around them and out of that debris, planets form." " that debris, planets form." " Much of what" "Much of what we know comes from Hubble" "Much of what we know comes from Hubble we know comes from Hubble Space Telescope, as it" "Space Telescope, as it aims at regions like the" "Space Telescope, as it aims at regions like the aims at regions like the Eagle Nebula." "Eagle Nebula." "Eagle Nebula." "This interstellar cloud" "This interstellar cloud is studded with collapsing" "This interstellar cloud is studded with collapsing is studded with collapsing disks of dust and gas." "disks of dust and gas." "disks of dust and gas." "A giant clump grows in" "A giant clump grows in the center of each disk." "A giant clump grows in the center of each disk." "the center of each disk." "Temperatures reach" "Temperatures reach a searing 18 million" "Temperatures reach a searing 18 million a searing 18 million degrees." "degrees." "degrees." "The same nuclear fusion" "The same nuclear fusion that powers our sun is" "The same nuclear fusion that powers our sun is that powers our sun is unleashed." "unleashed." "unleashed." "The star is born." "The star is born." "The star is born." "Radiation from the star" "Radiation from the star generates a stellar wind" "Radiation from the star generates a stellar wind generates a stellar wind that sweeps away that sweeps away leftover dust and debris." "that sweeps away leftover dust and debris." "leftover dust and debris." "Some of the dust survives" "Some of the dust survives and remains in orbit" "Some of the dust survives and remains in orbit and remains in orbit around the newborn star." "around the newborn star." "around the newborn star." "Over millions of years" "Over millions of years the dust sticks together" "Over millions of years the dust sticks together the dust sticks together forming knots that forming knots that grow into asteroids, forming knots that grow into asteroids, grow into asteroids, and the asteroids and the asteroids grow into planets." "and the asteroids grow into planets." "grow into planets." "These planets migrate" "These planets migrate through the disk until" "These planets migrate through the disk until through the disk until they find a stable orbit." "they find a stable orbit." "they find a stable orbit." "This is why Bellerophon" "This is why Bellerophon is so close to its parent" "This is why Bellerophon is so close to its parent is so close to its parent star." "star." "star." "But one newly discovered" "But one newly discovered world has found its stable" "But one newly discovered world has found its stable world has found its stable orbit in a place no orbit in a place no planet should ever go." "2001." "2001." "2001." "Hubble Space Telescope" "Hubble Space Telescope is directed to an obscure" "Hubble Space Telescope is directed to an obscure is directed to an obscure star some 150 light-years star some 150 light-years away from Earth, star some 150 light-years away from Earth, away from Earth, in the constellation in the constellation of Pegasus." "in the constellation of Pegasus." "of Pegasus." "This is the same region" "This is the same region where Bellerphon was found" "This is the same region where Bellerphon was found where Bellerphon was found six years earlier." "six years earlier." "six years earlier." "Hubble is tracking another" "Hubble is tracking another hot Jupiter discovered by" "Hubble is tracking another hot Jupiter discovered by hot Jupiter discovered by astronomer Geoff Marcy." "astronomer Geoff Marcy." "astronomer Geoff Marcy." "But this one is different" "But this one is different from Bellerophon." "But this one is different from Bellerophon." " from Bellerophon." " You've" "You've probably heard of the" "You've probably heard of the probably heard of the planet HD209458-B." "planet HD209458-B." "planet HD209458-B." "It's a terrible name." "It's a terrible name." " It's a terrible name." " A terrible name" "A terrible name for a terrible place." "A terrible name for a terrible place." "for a terrible place." "HD209458-B has been dubbed" "HD209458-B has been dubbed by some as Osiris after" "HD209458-B has been dubbed by some as Osiris after by some as Osiris after the Egyptian the Egyptian God of the Dead." "the Egyptian God of the Dead." "God of the Dead." "Osiris is over 200 times" "Osiris is over 200 times more massive than Earth." "Osiris is over 200 times more massive than Earth." "more massive than Earth." "It has migrated perilously" "It has migrated perilously close to its sun at a mere" "It has migrated perilously close to its sun at a mere close to its sun at a mere 4 million miles from the" "4 million miles from the blazing solar surface, 4 million miles from the blazing solar surface, blazing solar surface, Osiris broils in" "Osiris broils in a planetary Hell." "Osiris broils in a planetary Hell." "a planetary Hell." "The average daily" "The average daily temperature on Osiris is" "The average daily temperature on Osiris is temperature on Osiris is over 2,000 degrees." "over 2,000 degrees." "over 2,000 degrees." "Forget global warming," "Forget global warming, this is global frying and" "Forget global warming, this is global frying and this is global frying and it causes Osiris to it causes Osiris to lose an estimated it causes Osiris to lose an estimated lose an estimated 550, 000 tons of" "550, 000 tons of air every second." "550, 000 tons of air every second." " air every second." " There's" "There's a leak of gas," "There's a leak of gas, a leak of gas, a steady stream of a steady stream of hydrogen and helium and a steady stream of hydrogen and helium and hydrogen and helium and that's making a that's making a big, huge cloud," "that's making a big, huge cloud, big, huge cloud, all around the planet." "all around the planet." " all around the planet." " Its atmosphere" "Its atmosphere is bleeding into space." "Its atmosphere is bleeding into space." "is bleeding into space." "Scientists speculate that" "Scientists speculate that a colossal trail of gas" "Scientists speculate that a colossal trail of gas a colossal trail of gas spirals behind the planet spirals behind the planet for thousands of miles." "spirals behind the planet for thousands of miles." "for thousands of miles." "Osiris presents an" "Osiris presents an unprecedented opportunity" "Osiris presents an unprecedented opportunity unprecedented opportunity for astronomers." "for astronomers." "for astronomers." "Using Hubble, they analyze" "Using Hubble, they analyze the alien planet's bloated" "Using Hubble, they analyze the alien planet's bloated the alien planet's bloated atmosphere." "atmosphere." " atmosphere." " This is the" "This is the absolutely first time," "This is the absolutely first time, absolutely first time, where we could tell what where we could tell what is the composition of the where we could tell what is the composition of the is the composition of the atmosphere of an" "atmosphere of an extrasolar planet." "atmosphere of an extrasolar planet." " extrasolar planet." " Surprisingly," "Surprisingly, Hubble detects many of the" "Surprisingly, Hubble detects many of the" "Hubble detects many of the basic chemicals basic chemicals needed for life." "basic chemicals needed for life." "needed for life." "Sodium, carbon," "Sodium, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen." "Sodium, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen." "hydrogen and oxygen." "But Osiris is far too hot" "But Osiris is far too hot for life as we know it." "But Osiris is far too hot for life as we know it." " for life as we know it." " There may" "There may be other forms of life" "There may be other forms of life be other forms of life however that thrive on however that thrive on higher temperatures." "however that thrive on higher temperatures." " higher temperatures." " But there's" "But there's no solid surface as we" "But there's no solid surface as we no solid surface as we know it on a Hot Jupiter." "know it on a Hot Jupiter." "know it on a Hot Jupiter." "So this life would have" "So this life would have to be just tiny little" "So this life would have to be just tiny little to be just tiny little microbes floating around microbes floating around on aerosols and on our own microbes floating around on aerosols and on our own on aerosols and on our own earth we have life" "earth we have life that floats around our earth we have life that floats around our that floats around our atmosphere." "atmosphere." "atmosphere." "But that life" "But that life didn't start there." "But that life didn't start there." "didn't start there." "So life almost certainly" "So life almost certainly would not exist on Hot" "So life almost certainly would not exist on Hot would not exist on Hot Jupiters." "Jupiters." " Jupiters." " Astronomers" "Astronomers have discovered many hot" "Astronomers have discovered many hot have discovered many hot Jupiters since Bellerphon" "Jupiters since Bellerphon was found in 1995." "Jupiters since Bellerphon was found in 1995." "was found in 1995." "But conditions on these" "But conditions on these worlds rule them out as" "But conditions on these worlds rule them out as worlds rule them out as places where the drama places where the drama of life can unfold." "places where the drama of life can unfold." "of life can unfold." "One of these gas giants is" "One of these gas giants is a planet that teases the" "One of these gas giants is a planet that teases the a planet that teases the rules of evolution." "rules of evolution." "rules of evolution." "Astronomer Geoff Marcy" "Astronomer Geoff Marcy discovers something" "Astronomer Geoff Marcy discovers something discovers something shocking about a planet shocking about a planet orbiting a star called 16 shocking about a planet orbiting a star called 16 orbiting a star called 16 Cygnus B located some 70" "Cygnus B located some 70 light-years away in the" "Cygnus B located some 70 light-years away in the light-years away in the constellation of constellation of Cygnus, the Swan." "constellation of Cygnus, the Swan." " Cygnus, the Swan." " The planet" "The planet was clearly in an" "The planet was clearly in an was clearly in an elongated orbit, bringing elongated orbit, bringing the planet close to and elongated orbit, bringing the planet close to and the planet close to and then far from then far from the host star." "then far from the host star." "the host star." "And this of course defied" "And this of course defied our expectations based on" "And this of course defied our expectations based on our expectations based on our own solar system where our own solar system where all of the planets go our own solar system where all of the planets go all of the planets go around our sun in nearly" "around our sun in nearly circular orbits like around our sun in nearly circular orbits like circular orbits like phonograph grooves phonograph grooves in a record." "phonograph grooves in a record." " in a record." " Like a" "Like a giant yo-yo in space," "Like a giant yo-yo in space, giant yo-yo in space, the gas giant swings back the gas giant swings back and forth across its solar the gas giant swings back and forth across its solar and forth across its solar system." "system." "system." "That is like the Earth" "That is like the Earth swooping 25 million miles" "That is like the Earth swooping 25 million miles swooping 25 million miles closer to the Sun, then closer to the Sun, then slinging past Mars, closer to the Sun, then slinging past Mars, slinging past Mars, all the way out towards" "all the way out towards Jupiter every year." "all the way out towards Jupiter every year." "Jupiter every year." "And like all of the" "And like all of the gas giants in our solar" "And like all of the gas giants in our solar gas giants in our solar system, this Yo-Yo Planet system, this Yo-Yo Planet might have an entourage of system, this Yo-Yo Planet might have an entourage of might have an entourage of Moons." "Moons." "Moons." "Marcy speculates that one" "Marcy speculates that one of these moons could be" "Marcy speculates that one of these moons could be of these moons could be similar to Earth." "similar to Earth." " similar to Earth." " And here's" "And here's where the interesting" "And here's where the interesting where the interesting story begins." "story begins." "story begins." "Imagine a rocky moon" "Imagine a rocky moon with lakes, oceans," "Imagine a rocky moon with lakes, oceans, with lakes, oceans, maybe streams and maybe streams and waterfalls on the surface." "maybe streams and waterfalls on the surface." "waterfalls on the surface." "The moon orbiting" "The moon orbiting its planet," "The moon orbiting its planet, its planet, the two of them the two of them orbiting the host star." "the two of them orbiting the host star." " orbiting the host star." " Unlike the" "Unlike the airless moon that circles" "Unlike the airless moon that circles airless moon that circles the Earth, this moon the Earth, this moon is a world with extreme the Earth, this moon is a world with extreme is a world with extreme seasons." "seasons." "seasons." "On Earth, the seasons are" "On Earth, the seasons are caused by the tilt of our" "On Earth, the seasons are caused by the tilt of our caused by the tilt of our planet." "planet." "planet." "Here, they are caused" "Here, they are caused by the elongated orbit." "Here, they are caused by the elongated orbit." " by the elongated orbit." " These poor" "These poor planets that are in these" "These poor planets that are in these planets that are in these elongated elliptical elongated elliptical orbits suffer terrible elongated elliptical orbits suffer terrible orbits suffer terrible changes in their climate changes in their climate throughout a year." "changes in their climate throughout a year." " throughout a year." " As they make" "As they make their closest approach," "As they make their closest approach, their closest approach, the Yo-Yo planet and its the Yo-Yo planet and its moon are blowtorched by the Yo-Yo planet and its moon are blowtorched by moon are blowtorched by the star." "the star." "the star." "Summer begins." "Summer begins." "Summer begins." "The atmosphere on the" "The atmosphere on the earth-like moon is savaged" "The atmosphere on the earth-like moon is savaged earth-like moon is savaged with raging storms." "with raging storms." "with raging storms." "Category 5 hurricanes" "Category 5 hurricanes on Earth are tiny eddies" "Category 5 hurricanes on Earth are tiny eddies on Earth are tiny eddies compared to the monster compared to the monster vortexes that form here." "compared to the monster vortexes that form here." "vortexes that form here." "The clouds thicken as" "The clouds thicken as the water evaporates." "The clouds thicken as the water evaporates." " the water evaporates." " Temperatures" "Temperatures rise dramatically." "Temperatures rise dramatically." "rise dramatically." "Any water or gases" "Any water or gases would heat up," "Any water or gases would heat up, would heat up, and indeed the oceans and indeed the oceans would boil into steam, and indeed the oceans would boil into steam, would boil into steam, so you'd end up with" "so you'd end up with a big steam bath." "so you'd end up with a big steam bath." " a big steam bath." " During the" "During the peak of the summer," "During the peak of the summer, peak of the summer, the entire moon is the entire moon is smothered in 800 degree the entire moon is smothered in 800 degree smothered in 800 degree temperatures." "temperatures." "temperatures." "This is the closest" "This is the closest approach to the star." "This is the closest approach to the star." "approach to the star." "During its 26 month orbit," "During its 26 month orbit, the summer season is" "During its 26 month orbit, the summer season is the summer season is barely two months long." "barely two months long." "barely two months long." "But what a season." "But what a season." "But what a season." "The planet and its moon" "The planet and its moon swing away from the" "The planet and its moon swing away from the swing away from the furnace of the star." "furnace of the star." "furnace of the star." "Temperatures fall, to" "Temperatures fall, to ranges we would find" "Temperatures fall, to ranges we would find ranges we would find temperate and comfortable." "temperate and comfortable." "temperate and comfortable." "With the coming of fall," "With the coming of fall, the rains return to the" "With the coming of fall, the rains return to the the rains return to the parched and roasted moon." "parched and roasted moon." "parched and roasted moon." "Dry ocean basins" "Dry ocean basins are replenished," "Dry ocean basins are replenished, are replenished, and the seas arise to and the seas arise to form new shorelines." "and the seas arise to form new shorelines." "form new shorelines." "Tranquility prevails as" "Tranquility prevails as the yo-yo planet and its" "Tranquility prevails as the yo-yo planet and its the yo-yo planet and its moon slip into the moon slip into the deep freeze of winter." "moon slip into the deep freeze of winter." "deep freeze of winter." "Now, over 200 million" "Now, over 200 million miles from the star," "Now, over 200 million miles from the star, miles from the star, the daytime sky is dark." "the daytime sky is dark." "the daytime sky is dark." "Temperatures hover" "Temperatures hover around 260 degrees below." "Temperatures hover around 260 degrees below." "around 260 degrees below." "Winters are long," "Winters are long, lasting 17 months." "Winters are long, lasting 17 months." "lasting 17 months." "With the coming" "With the coming of spring," "With the coming of spring, of spring, the sun looms large in the the sun looms large in the skies over this hapless the sun looms large in the skies over this hapless skies over this hapless moon as the ice cracks" "moon as the ice cracks and melts violently." "moon as the ice cracks and melts violently." "and melts violently." "Huge icebergs calve into" "Huge icebergs calve into a stormy and fast-rising" "Huge icebergs calve into a stormy and fast-rising a stormy and fast-rising ocean." "ocean." "ocean." "For two preciously" "For two preciously short periods," "For two preciously short periods, short periods, during the spring thaw during the spring thaw and the autumn rains, during the spring thaw and the autumn rains, and the autumn rains, the climate on this the climate on this earthlike moon is balmy" "the climate on this earthlike moon is balmy earthlike moon is balmy and comfortable." "and comfortable." "and comfortable." "At a distance of 93" "At a distance of 93 million miles from the" "At a distance of 93 million miles from the million miles from the star, roughly the same star, roughly the same distance as earth from the star, roughly the same distance as earth from the distance as earth from the sun, the elliptical orbit" "sun, the elliptical orbit of this planet and its sun, the elliptical orbit of this planet and its of this planet and its moon crosses an area moon crosses an area around the star some moon crosses an area around the star some" "around the star some scientists call, scientists call, The Goldilocks Zone." "scientists call, The Goldilocks Zone." "The Goldilocks Zone." "The conditions here are" "The conditions here are just right for life." "The conditions here are just right for life." " just right for life." " If you're" "If you're too close to the star," "If you're too close to the star, too close to the star, then it's too hot." "then it's too hot." "then it's too hot." "If you're too far away" "If you're too far away then it's going to be too" "If you're too far away then it's going to be too then it's going to be too cold and everything's cold and everything's going to be icy, cold and everything's going to be icy," "going to be icy, but then if you're right but then if you're right in the middle it's just but then if you're right in the middle it's just in the middle it's just right." "right." " right." " Every star" "Every star has a goldilocks zone." "Every star has a goldilocks zone." "has a goldilocks zone." "Where that zone is" "Where that zone is depends on the size and" "Where that zone is depends on the size and depends on the size and temperature of the star." "temperature of the star." "temperature of the star." "In our solar system, Venus" "In our solar system, Venus marks the inner boundary" "In our solar system, Venus marks the inner boundary marks the inner boundary and Mars the and Mars the outer boundary." "and Mars the outer boundary." "outer boundary." "Earth and its abundance" "Earth and its abundance of life is right in the" "Earth and its abundance of life is right in the of life is right in the middle." "middle." "middle." "The Yo-Yo Planet passes" "The Yo-Yo Planet passes through the Goldilocks" "The Yo-Yo Planet passes through the Goldilocks through the Goldilocks Zone twice a year, for 3" "Zone twice a year, for 3 and a half months during" "Zone twice a year, for 3 and a half months during and a half months during the spring as it races the spring as it races inbound and again in the the spring as it races inbound and again in the" "inbound and again in the fall, for 3 and a half fall, for 3 and a half months as it hurtles back fall, for 3 and a half months as it hurtles back months as it hurtles back into the colder" "into the colder reaches of space." "into the colder reaches of space." "reaches of space." "Could life survive the" "Could life survive the conditions outside the" "Could life survive the conditions outside the conditions outside the Goldilocks Zone?" "Goldilocks Zone?" " Goldilocks Zone?" " There could" "There could be life forms that are" "There could be life forms that are be life forms that are smart enough to hibernate smart enough to hibernate as do animals on the Earth smart enough to hibernate as do animals on the Earth as do animals on the Earth during the winter season." "during the winter season." "during the winter season." "If this sounds fantastic," "If this sounds fantastic, I offer you the tidal" "If this sounds fantastic, I offer you the tidal" "I offer you the tidal zones on the Earth." "zones on the Earth." "zones on the Earth." "On the tidal zones, life" "On the tidal zones, life proliferates of course," "On the tidal zones, life proliferates of course, proliferates of course, near the seashore and near the seashore and they do so despite tides." "near the seashore and they do so despite tides." "they do so despite tides." "The water coming in" "The water coming in covering many of the life" "The water coming in covering many of the life covering many of the life forms." "forms." "forms." "The water going out at low" "The water going out at low tide and yet those species" "The water going out at low tide and yet those species tide and yet those species survive perfectly well." "survive perfectly well." " survive perfectly well." " The strange" "The strange cycle of the yo-yo" "The strange cycle of the yo-yo cycle of the yo-yo planet's orbit creates planet's orbit creates fleeting conditions planet's orbit creates fleeting conditions fleeting conditions suitable for life, suitable for life, but also for death." "suitable for life, but also for death." "but also for death." "Some alien planets" "Some alien planets are even more bizarre." "Some alien planets are even more bizarre." "are even more bizarre." "Imagine a world that" "Imagine a world that has no star to orbit." "Imagine a world that has no star to orbit." "has no star to orbit." "Scientists speculate that" "Scientists speculate that our galaxy is teaming with" "Scientists speculate that our galaxy is teaming with our galaxy is teaming with rogue planets, adrift rogue planets, adrift in the murky lanes of rogue planets, adrift in the murky lanes of in the murky lanes of interstellar space." "interstellar space." "interstellar space." "These are orphaned worlds," "These are orphaned worlds, planets that are booted" "These are orphaned worlds, planets that are booted planets that are booted from their solar systems from their solar systems by the chaos of planetary from their solar systems by the chaos of planetary by the chaos of planetary migration." "migration." "migration." "Astronomers call" "Astronomers call such worlds planemos." "Astronomers call such worlds planemos." " such worlds planemos." " Planemos are" "Planemos are planets without a star." "Planemos are planets without a star." "planets without a star." "They're just drifting" "They're just drifting through the galaxy" "They're just drifting through the galaxy through the galaxy indefinitely." "indefinitely." " indefinitely." " What massive" "What massive force would it take to" "What massive force would it take to force would it take to kick a planet out kick a planet out of the solar system?" "kick a planet out of the solar system?" " of the solar system?" " When a" "When a young star forms with a" "When a young star forms with a young star forms with a contingent of contingent of planets around it, contingent of planets around it, planets around it, many of those planets many of those planets gravitationally interact many of those planets gravitationally interact" "gravitationally interact with each other, they with each other, they yank on each other, with each other, they yank on each other, yank on each other, slingshot each other slingshot each other so that one of them is" "slingshot each other so that one of them is so that one of them is ejected from the ejected from the planetary system, ejected from the planetary system, planetary system, voted off the voted off the island if you will." "voted off the island if you will." " island if you will." " If you were" "If you were unfortunately a resident" "If you were unfortunately a resident unfortunately a resident on a planet that was on a planet that was kicked out by a collision on a planet that was kicked out by a collision kicked out by a collision or near collision with" "or near collision with another large object, or near collision with another large object, another large object, you would probably rapidly you would probably rapidly move out of the habitable you would probably rapidly move out of the habitable" "move out of the habitable zone." "zone." " zone." " There are" "There are hundreds of billions," "There are hundreds of billions, hundreds of billions, of these lost, of these lost, wayward poor, of these lost, wayward poor, wayward poor, wandering planets out wandering planets out in our Milky Way galaxy," "wandering planets out in our Milky Way galaxy, in our Milky Way galaxy, with no parent star with no parent star to warm them up." "with no parent star to warm them up." " to warm them up." " Cold." "Cold." "Cold." "Dark." "Dark." "Dark." "Quiet." "Quiet." "Quiet." "Because planemos" "Because planemos have no sun," "Because planemos have no sun, have no sun, they are worlds they are worlds without days or years." "they are worlds without days or years." "without days or years." "They keep vigil through" "They keep vigil through an eternal night." "They keep vigil through an eternal night." "an eternal night." "Planemos are" "Planemos are solitary wanderers," "Planemos are solitary wanderers, solitary wanderers, sentinels of the galaxy." "sentinels of the galaxy." "sentinels of the galaxy." "Just because it's out" "Just because it's out there drifting in space" "Just because it's out there drifting in space there drifting in space doesn't mean a doesn't mean a planemo is dead." "doesn't mean a planemo is dead." " planemo is dead." " If the" "If the planemo is a rocky world," "If the planemo is a rocky world, planemo is a rocky world, it could well it could well have life on it." "it could well have life on it." " have life on it." " A small rocky" "A small rocky planemo without an" "A small rocky planemo without an planemo without an atmosphere will slumber atmosphere will slumber in extreme cold, atmosphere will slumber in extreme cold, in extreme cold, far colder than the far colder than the coldest winter day on our" "far colder than the coldest winter day on our coldest winter day on our own South Pole." "own South Pole." "own South Pole." "But a planemo large enough" "But a planemo large enough to retain an atmosphere" "But a planemo large enough to retain an atmosphere to retain an atmosphere traps the heat generated traps the heat generated when the planet was first traps the heat generated when the planet was first when the planet was first formed." "formed." "formed." "It is the ultimate" "It is the ultimate greenhouse effect." "It is the ultimate greenhouse effect." "greenhouse effect." "The heat and energy comes" "The heat and energy comes from the molten core deep" "The heat and energy comes from the molten core deep from the molten core deep inside the lonely planet." "inside the lonely planet." "inside the lonely planet." "If the planemo is a" "If the planemo is a gas giant like Jupiter," "If the planemo is a gas giant like Jupiter, gas giant like Jupiter, it may have a it may have a system of moons." "it may have a system of moons." "system of moons." "The gravitational pull" "The gravitational pull between the planemo and" "The gravitational pull between the planemo and between the planemo and its moons its moons creates friction, its moons creates friction, creates friction, causing the interior of causing the interior of the moons to stay warm." "causing the interior of the moons to stay warm." " the moons to stay warm." " These moons" "These moons could also have life on" "These moons could also have life on could also have life on them in the same way that them in the same way that Jupiter's moon Io has them in the same way that Jupiter's moon Io has" "Jupiter's moon Io has volcanoes and has a lot volcanoes and has a lot of heat energy being volcanoes and has a lot of heat energy being of heat energy being generated by interactions generated by interactions with Jupiter and the other" "generated by interactions with Jupiter and the other with Jupiter and the other moons." "moons." " moons." " If" "If anything lives here," "If anything lives here, anything lives here, it will be single cells it will be single cells like common bacteria found it will be single cells like common bacteria found like common bacteria found on Earth, not on Earth, not complex life forms." "on Earth, not complex life forms." "complex life forms." "Without a sun to" "Without a sun to provide photosynthesis," "Without a sun to provide photosynthesis, provide photosynthesis, these tiny organisms these tiny organisms derive their energy from these tiny organisms derive their energy from derive their energy from the chemistry in the soil the chemistry in the soil of the planemo or its" "the chemistry in the soil of the planemo or its of the planemo or its moon." "moon." "moon." "On Earth, there are" "On Earth, there are similar conditions." "On Earth, there are similar conditions." "similar conditions." "Colonies of bacteria are" "Colonies of bacteria are found deep within mine" "Colonies of bacteria are found deep within mine found deep within mine shafts in South Africa." "shafts in South Africa." "shafts in South Africa." "They have no access to" "They have no access to oxygen nor light and" "They have no access to oxygen nor light and oxygen nor light and survive entirely on the survive entirely on the chemicals they make from survive entirely on the chemicals they make from chemicals they make from the surrounding dirt." "the surrounding dirt." "the surrounding dirt." "Their metabolisms are" "Their metabolisms are extremely slow and they" "Their metabolisms are extremely slow and they extremely slow and they reproduce only once reproduce only once every thousand years." "reproduce only once every thousand years." "every thousand years." "If life dwells on" "If life dwells on a sunless planemo," "If life dwells on a sunless planemo, a sunless planemo, it could be it could be organisms like them, it could be organisms like them, organisms like them, marooned when their marooned when their planet was young." "marooned when their planet was young." "planet was young." "While planemos" "While planemos slumber undisturbed ," "While planemos slumber undisturbed , slumber undisturbed , there are worse places there are worse places to be in the universe." "there are worse places to be in the universe." "to be in the universe." "Like in the company of this" "Like in the company of this lethal pulsar" "Like in the company of this lethal pulsar some 980 light years from Earth some 980 light years from Earth some 980 light years from Earth in the constellation of Virgo." "From afar," "From afar, a pulsar looks like a" "From afar, a pulsar looks like a a pulsar looks like a blinking light, blinking light, but up close, blinking light, but up close, but up close, pulsars machine-gun their pulsars machine-gun their surroundings with deadly" "pulsars machine-gun their surroundings with deadly surroundings with deadly radiation." "radiation." "radiation." "They are no place" "They are no place for planets," "They are no place for planets, for planets, yet something interferes yet something interferes with the precision of this yet something interferes with the precision of this with the precision of this pulsar." "pulsar." "pulsar." "One explanation is that" "One explanation is that the anomaly is caused by a" "One explanation is that the anomaly is caused by a the anomaly is caused by a planet." "planet." "planet." "But many astronomers are" "But many astronomers are skeptical that planets" "But many astronomers are skeptical that planets skeptical that planets orbiting a orbiting a pulsar can exist." "orbiting a pulsar can exist." " pulsar can exist." " The reason" "The reason that's a problem is" "The reason that's a problem is that's a problem is because pulsars are because pulsars are formed in this incredible because pulsars are formed in this incredible formed in this incredible explosion." "explosion." " explosion." " When a red" "When a red giant star explodes," "When a red giant star explodes, giant star explodes, a titanic fireball known a titanic fireball known as a supernova unleashes a titanic fireball known as a supernova unleashes as a supernova unleashes as much energy in as much energy in one minute as our Sun" "as much energy in one minute as our Sun one minute as our Sun generates in a lifetime." "generates in a lifetime." " generates in a lifetime." " When a" "When a star goes supernova," "When a star goes supernova, star goes supernova, the shockwave the shockwave is so immense, the shockwave is so immense, is so immense, it's hard to imagine any it's hard to imagine any planet surviving that." "it's hard to imagine any planet surviving that." " planet surviving that." " When the" "When the cosmic dust clears," "When the cosmic dust clears, cosmic dust clears, all that remains is the all that remains is the crushed core of the red all that remains is the crushed core of the red crushed core of the red giant, pulsing in the" "giant, pulsing in the heart of an expanding giant, pulsing in the heart of an expanding heart of an expanding debris field." "debris field." "debris field." "Matter blasted from the" "Matter blasted from the colossal explosion falls" "Matter blasted from the colossal explosion falls colossal explosion falls back to the pulsar back to the pulsar and forms a disk." "back to the pulsar and forms a disk." "and forms a disk." "Within this chaos," "Within this chaos, a new world arises," "Within this chaos, a new world arises, a new world arises, born of fire born of fire and destruction, born of fire and destruction, and destruction, a planetary zombie raised a planetary zombie raised from the carcass of the" "a planetary zombie raised from the carcass of the from the carcass of the former red giant star." "former red giant star." " former red giant star." " It's amazing" "It's amazing that planets could form in" "It's amazing that planets could form in that planets could form in that environment." "that environment." " that environment." " A planet" "A planet orbiting a pulsar will" "A planet orbiting a pulsar will orbiting a pulsar will give you the feeling of give you the feeling of being in a disco bar with give you the feeling of being in a disco bar with being in a disco bar with a very strong" "a very strong strobe light, a very strong strobe light, strobe light, which is the pulsar." "which is the pulsar." " which is the pulsar." " Radiation from" "Radiation from this stellar beast breaks" "Radiation from this stellar beast breaks this stellar beast breaks down the organic down the organic molecules needed for life." "down the organic molecules needed for life." " molecules needed for life." " The pulsar" "The pulsar has these very strong" "The pulsar has these very strong has these very strong magnetic fields that are magnetic fields that are being spun around as the magnetic fields that are being spun around as the being spun around as the star is rotating quickly" "star is rotating quickly and it's picking up any star is rotating quickly and it's picking up any and it's picking up any material." "material." "material." "Electrons, protons, and" "Electrons, protons, and speeding them up and" "Electrons, protons, and speeding them up and speeding them up and slinging them out at high slinging them out at high speed so it's like a solar slinging them out at high speed so it's like a solar" "speed so it's like a solar wind with a vengeance." "wind with a vengeance." " wind with a vengeance." " I can't" "I can't imagine that there would" "I can't imagine that there would imagine that there would be much of an opportunity be much of an opportunity for even simple life, be much of an opportunity for even simple life, for even simple life, microbial life, to emerge" "microbial life, to emerge and to flourish on a microbial life, to emerge and to flourish on a and to flourish on a planet around a pulsar." "planet around a pulsar." "planet around a pulsar." "Largely because if you are" "Largely because if you are in the pulse you will be" "Largely because if you are in the pulse you will be in the pulse you will be severely energized, and if severely energized, and if you are not in the pulse severely energized, and if you are not in the pulse" "you are not in the pulse you will be completely you will be completely devoid of energy." "you will be completely devoid of energy." " devoid of energy." " The discovery of" "The discovery of Pulsar planets shows how" "The discovery of Pulsar planets shows how" "Pulsar planets shows how new worlds can form in new worlds can form in the wake of a star's new worlds can form in the wake of a star's the wake of a star's destruction." "destruction." "destruction." "No matter where" "No matter where a planet arises," "No matter where a planet arises, a planet arises, the process of its birth the process of its birth is fraught with danger." "the process of its birth is fraught with danger." "is fraught with danger." "Sometimes, the" "Sometimes, the violence is so great," "Sometimes, the violence is so great, violence is so great, the end of the world comes the end of the world comes before the beginning." "the end of the world comes before the beginning." "before the beginning." "2007." "2007." "2007." "Astronomers using the" "Astronomers using the giant Gemini North" "Astronomers using the giant Gemini North giant Gemini North Telescope make a strange" "Telescope make a strange discovery in the Pleiades" "Telescope make a strange discovery in the Pleiades discovery in the Pleiades Cluster some 400" "Cluster some 400 light-years from Earth." "Cluster some 400 light-years from Earth." "light-years from Earth." "A star known only by its" "A star known only by its catalogue number HD 23514" "A star known only by its catalogue number HD 23514 catalogue number HD 23514 is surrounded by a giant is surrounded by a giant donut-shaped cloud of dust is surrounded by a giant donut-shaped cloud of dust donut-shaped cloud of dust and gas." "and gas." "and gas." "The star in the middle of" "The star in the middle of the donut shape is about" "The star in the middle of the donut shape is about the donut shape is about 100 million years old," "100 million years old, a cosmic toddler in 100 million years old, a cosmic toddler in a cosmic toddler in astronomical terms." "astronomical terms." "astronomical terms." "Our Sun is 45 times older." "Our Sun is 45 times older." "Our Sun is 45 times older." "The conditions are perfect" "The conditions are perfect for planets to form." "The conditions are perfect for planets to form." "for planets to form." "But spectral analysis" "But spectral analysis finds something strange." "But spectral analysis finds something strange." "finds something strange." "The dust is" "The dust is utterly pulverized." "The dust is utterly pulverized." "utterly pulverized." "Typically, a newborn star" "Typically, a newborn star is surrounded by fledgling" "Typically, a newborn star is surrounded by fledgling is surrounded by fledgling planets." "planets." " planets." " Planets form" "Planets form around the young star in a" "Planets form around the young star in a around the young star in a proto-planetary disc of proto-planetary disc of gas and dust and then proto-planetary disc of gas and dust and then gas and dust and then these planets go on their" "these planets go on their merry way orbiting the these planets go on their merry way orbiting the merry way orbiting the star, not realizing that star, not realizing that they're in an orbit that's star, not realizing that they're in an orbit that's" "they're in an orbit that's too close to too close to another planet." "too close to another planet." " another planet." " Millions" "Millions of years ago," "Millions of years ago, of years ago, two primordial planets two primordial planets orbiting HD-23514 are two primordial planets orbiting HD-23514 are orbiting HD-23514 are spinning toward doom." "spinning toward doom." "spinning toward doom." "As the two" "As the two worlds close in," "As the two worlds close in, worlds close in, tidal forces torque each tidal forces torque each planet from spheres to tidal forces torque each planet from spheres to planet from spheres to egg-shapes." "Nothing remains." "Nothing remains." "Nothing remains." "The two worlds" "The two worlds are annihilated," "The two worlds are annihilated, are annihilated, creating the dust and creating the dust and debris seen around star creating the dust and debris seen around star debris seen around star HD- 23514." "HD- 23514." "HD- 23514." "4 billion years ago, a 4 billion years ago, a similar apocalypse came to 4 billion years ago, a similar apocalypse came to similar apocalypse came to Earth." "Earth." "Earth." "A Mars-sized planet forms" "A Mars-sized planet forms in roughly the same orbit" "A Mars-sized planet forms in roughly the same orbit in roughly the same orbit as the newborn Earth." "as the newborn Earth." "as the newborn Earth." "Like the planets" "Like the planets at HD23514," "Like the planets at HD23514, at HD23514, Earth and this Mars-sized" "Earth and this Mars-sized body are barreling toward" "Earth and this Mars-sized body are barreling toward body are barreling toward each other." "each other." " each other." " If you happen" "If you happen to be unlucky enough to be" "If you happen to be unlucky enough to be to be unlucky enough to be standing on a growing standing on a growing planet when it was in the standing on a growing planet when it was in the planet when it was in the process of still" "process of still becoming the Earth, process of still becoming the Earth, becoming the Earth, you might wake up one you might wake up one morning and notice that you might wake up one morning and notice that" "morning and notice that the sky was getting darker the sky was getting darker and darker as a Mars-size the sky was getting darker and darker as a Mars-size and darker as a Mars-size body was coming at you body was coming at you within a period of less" "body was coming at you within a period of less within a period of less than an hour." "than an hour." " than an hour." " And" "And when it hits," "And when it hits, when it hits, the shockwave is felt all the shockwave is felt all over the planet scouring the shockwave is felt all over the planet scouring over the planet scouring the surface of the Earth." "the surface of the Earth." "the surface of the Earth." "The collision obliterates" "The collision obliterates one side of the planet." "The collision obliterates one side of the planet." "one side of the planet." "Molten rock sprays" "Molten rock sprays out into space." "Molten rock sprays out into space." "out into space." "The entire globe is" "The entire globe is peppered by meteors and" "The entire globe is peppered by meteors and peppered by meteors and noxious vapor." "noxious vapor." " noxious vapor." " It would" "It would actually make hell look" "It would actually make hell look actually make hell look like a Bahamas vacation." "like a Bahamas vacation." " like a Bahamas vacation." " The debris" "The debris field from the collision" "The debris field from the collision field from the collision coalesces and coalesces and forms our Moon." "coalesces and forms our Moon." "forms our Moon." "It is a new beginning" "It is a new beginning for our planet." "It is a new beginning for our planet." " for our planet." " Collisions" "Collisions are part of the birth" "Collisions are part of the birth are part of the birth process for process for planetary systems." "process for planetary systems." "planetary systems." "Building a terrestrial" "Building a terrestrial planet is probably all" "Building a terrestrial planet is probably all planet is probably all about colliding pieces about colliding pieces of rock together." "about colliding pieces of rock together." " of rock together." " And all" "And all across the galaxy," "And all across the galaxy, across the galaxy, colliding pieces of rock colliding pieces of rock are forming terrestrial colliding pieces of rock are forming terrestrial are forming terrestrial worlds that defy worlds that defy the imagination." "There" "There is a new planet out there," "There is a new planet out there, is a new planet out there, a planet we were not a planet we were not aware of existing before." "a planet we were not aware of existing before." " aware of existing before." " It is not" "It is not just one planet," "It is not just one planet, just one planet, it is a new it is a new type of planet." "it is a new type of planet." "type of planet." "Earth on steroids." "Earth on steroids." " Earth on steroids." " I like" "I like to call them super earths." "I like to call them super earths." "to call them super earths." "They are just like the" "They are just like the earth except bigger up to" "They are just like the earth except bigger up to earth except bigger up to about 10 times the about 10 times the mass of the earth." "about 10 times the mass of the earth." "mass of the earth." "One family that the" "One family that the Super Earths resemble," "One family that the Super Earths resemble," "Super Earths resemble, just like our own earth, just like our own earth, continents, oceans." "just like our own earth, continents, oceans." "continents, oceans." "Some of them may be very" "Some of them may be very dry like Mars and then" "Some of them may be very dry like Mars and then dry like Mars and then another family that we another family that we call water worlds or ocean another family that we call water worlds or ocean call water worlds or ocean planets, that are" "planets, that are completely covered with planets, that are completely covered with completely covered with water." "water." " water." " Welcome" "Welcome to Gliese 581c." "Welcome to Gliese 581c." " to Gliese 581c." " This planet" "This planet was found by Michel Mayor" "This planet was found by Michel Mayor was found by Michel Mayor and it orbits with 2 other and it orbits with 2 other planets around a very and it orbits with 2 other planets around a very planets around a very small star." "small star." " small star." " It is only" "It is only 20 light-years away," "It is only 20 light-years away, 20 light-years away, in the constellation in the constellation of Libra, in the constellation of Libra, of Libra, and is one of the smallest and is one of the smallest terrestrial planets found" "and is one of the smallest terrestrial planets found terrestrial planets found beyond our solar system." "beyond our solar system." "beyond our solar system." "But that doesn't mean" "But that doesn't mean Gliese 581c is small." "But that doesn't mean Gliese 581c is small." "Gliese 581c is small." "It's still a Super Earth" "It's still a Super Earth with five times the mass" "It's still a Super Earth with five times the mass with five times the mass of our home planet." "of our home planet." "of our home planet." "But it is the possibility" "But it is the possibility of liquid water that" "But it is the possibility of liquid water that excites scientists." "excites scientists." "An ocean" "An ocean planet feels like being in" "An ocean planet feels like being in planet feels like being in the middle of the the middle of the Pacific Ocean, the middle of the Pacific Ocean," "Pacific Ocean, with no land in with no land in sight, just water." "with no land in sight, just water." "sight, just water." "Puffy white clouds and" "Puffy white clouds and blue sky above you." "Puffy white clouds and blue sky above you." "blue sky above you." "The winds on the ocean" "The winds on the ocean world are going to be" "The winds on the ocean world are going to be world are going to be similar to that similar to that of the Earth." "similar to that of the Earth." "of the Earth." "So it will be a very" "So it will be a very good place to sail." "So it will be a very good place to sail." " good place to sail." " The weather's" "The weather's absolutely perfect," "The weather's absolutely perfect, absolutely perfect, every day you get a clear every day you get a clear blue sky and the sun just every day you get a clear blue sky and the sun just blue sky and the sun just stays in the same place." "stays in the same place." "stays in the same place." "Now how is that for" "Now how is that for weather prediction?" "Now how is that for weather prediction?" " weather prediction?" " No" "No land anywhere." "No land anywhere." "land anywhere." "Even miles beneath" "Even miles beneath the surface." "Even miles beneath the surface." " the surface." " This water" "This water layer would extend very" "This water layer would extend very layer would extend very far down, at least a far down, at least a quarter of the way down in far down, at least a quarter of the way down in quarter of the way down in the planet." "the planet." " the planet." " But as we dive" "But as we dive deeper into the sea," "But as we dive deeper into the sea, deeper into the sea, the pressure builds." "the pressure builds." "the pressure builds." "At 35,000 feet" "At 35,000 feet below the surface," "At 35,000 feet below the surface, below the surface, we pass the point where we pass the point where the deepest oceans on we pass the point where the deepest oceans on the deepest oceans on Earth bottom out." "Earth bottom out." "Earth bottom out." "We pass the" "We pass the 100,000 foot mark." "We pass the 100,000 foot mark." "100,000 foot mark." "The pressure is so great," "The pressure is so great, water itself begins to" "The pressure is so great, water itself begins to water itself begins to take on surprising take on surprising new forms." "take on surprising new forms." "new forms." "At a depth of ten times" "At a depth of ten times the greatest ocean depth" "At a depth of ten times the greatest ocean depth the greatest ocean depth on Earth, we on Earth, we reach the bottom." "on Earth, we reach the bottom." " reach the bottom." " When" "When you have a large amount of" "When you have a large amount of you have a large amount of water, then at the water, then at the bottom of an ocean, water, then at the bottom of an ocean, bottom of an ocean, you will form very high" "you will form very high pressure in excess of a you will form very high pressure in excess of a pressure in excess of a million atmospheres million atmospheres and that pressure will million atmospheres and that pressure will and that pressure will compress the liquid water" "compress the liquid water that is the ocean into a compress the liquid water that is the ocean into a that is the ocean into a state which we call Ice 7." "state which we call Ice 7." " state which we call Ice 7." " No, it's" "No, it's not like ice in your" "No, it's not like ice in your not like ice in your refrigerator." "refrigerator." "refrigerator." "The molecules of water" "The molecules of water that are in ice in your" "The molecules of water that are in ice in your that are in ice in your refrigerator are kind refrigerator are kind of all jumbled up." "refrigerator are kind of all jumbled up." "of all jumbled up." "But if you form ice" "But if you form ice under very high pressure," "But if you form ice under very high pressure, under very high pressure, then the water molecules then the water molecules can become ordered, then the water molecules can become ordered, can become ordered, they can become aligned." "they can become aligned." " they can become aligned." " I can" "I can show you a crystal that is" "I can show you a crystal that is show you a crystal that is a very good a very good analog to Ice 7." "a very good analog to Ice 7." "analog to Ice 7." "This is halide, also known" "This is halide, also known commonly as rock salt." "This is halide, also known commonly as rock salt." " commonly as rock salt." " Ice 7 may exist" "Ice 7 may exist within our own solar" "Ice 7 may exist within our own solar within our own solar system." "system." "system." "Europa, a moon of Jupiter," "Europa, a moon of Jupiter, could possibly have a" "Europa, a moon of Jupiter, could possibly have a could possibly have a mantle of liquid water mantle of liquid water surrounded by a thick icy mantle of liquid water surrounded by a thick icy surrounded by a thick icy crust." "crust." "crust." "The pressure from the" "The pressure from the crust is so great that Ice" "The pressure from the crust is so great that Ice crust is so great that Ice 7 might exist deep within" "7 might exist deep within these uncharted seas." "7 might exist deep within these uncharted seas." "these uncharted seas." "If we scale up and" "If we scale up and thaw out Europa," "If we scale up and thaw out Europa, thaw out Europa, it may be a water world it may be a water world similar to Gliese 581c." "it may be a water world similar to Gliese 581c." " similar to Gliese 581c." " One" "One could imagine that life" "One could imagine that life could imagine that life could emerge on could emerge on a water world." "could emerge on a water world." "a water world." "After all, water is" "After all, water is essential to life on" "After all, water is essential to life on essential to life on earth." "earth." "earth." "Marc Kuchner:" "Marc Kuchner:" "Everywhere on earth," "Marc Kuchner:" "Everywhere on earth," "Everywhere on earth, where there is where there is water, there is life." "where there is water, there is life." "water, there is life." "You cannot find a sterile" "You cannot find a sterile drop of water on earth" "You cannot find a sterile drop of water on earth drop of water on earth unless you put it in unless you put it in the microwave yourself." "unless you put it in the microwave yourself." " the microwave yourself." " On this" "On this water world there could be" "On this water world there could be water world there could be bacteria or any kind of bacteria or any kind of life in the ocean itself." "bacteria or any kind of life in the ocean itself." " life in the ocean itself." " But not all of" "But not all of Super Earths are water" "But not all of Super Earths are water" "Super Earths are water worlds teaming with life." "worlds teaming with life." " worlds teaming with life." " When we" "When we talk about Super Earths," "When we talk about Super Earths, talk about Super Earths, we talked about we talked about two major families." "we talked about two major families." "two major families." "mostly rocky with some mostly rocky with some water and mostly water mostly rocky with some water and mostly water water and mostly water with an endless ocean." "with an endless ocean." "with an endless ocean." "But one has to add to" "But one has to add to those a third family of" "But one has to add to those a third family of those a third family of probably very rare Super probably very rare Super Earths and earth-like probably very rare Super Earths and earth-like" "Earths and earth-like planets which are planets which are called carbon planets." "planets which are called carbon planets." " called carbon planets." " A carbon planet" "A carbon planet is unlike anything we've" "A carbon planet is unlike anything we've is unlike anything we've ever seen anywhere." "ever seen anywhere." "ever seen anywhere." "A place with an" "A place with an alien chemistry," "A place with an alien chemistry, alien chemistry, but loaded with very but loaded with very earthly treasures." "Throughout" "Throughout our galaxy," "Throughout our galaxy, our galaxy, there are planets barren there are planets barren and poor and inhospitable." "there are planets barren and poor and inhospitable." "and poor and inhospitable." "But science is on the" "But science is on the trail of a new type of" "But science is on the trail of a new type of trail of a new type of planet, an entire planet, an entire world of treasure." "planet, an entire world of treasure." " world of treasure." " In our" "In our own solar system," "In our own solar system, own solar system, in our sun and in in our sun and in all the stars nearby, in our sun and in all the stars nearby, all the stars nearby, there's always more" "there's always more oxygen than carbon." "there's always more oxygen than carbon." "oxygen than carbon." "But, if we think of a" "But, if we think of a place in the universe" "But, if we think of a place in the universe place in the universe where there's more where there's more carbon than oxygen, where there's more carbon than oxygen, carbon than oxygen, then planet formation" "then planet formation is very different." "then planet formation is very different." " is very different." " Spectral" "Spectral analysis shows carbon to" "Spectral analysis shows carbon to be far more plentiful 26, 000 be far more plentiful 26, 000 light-years away near the light-years away near the center of our galaxy." "light-years away near the center of our galaxy." "center of our galaxy." "Planets that form here may" "Planets that form here may contain a rich abundance" "Planets that form here may contain a rich abundance contain a rich abundance of carbon." "of carbon." "of carbon." "The morning sky on a" "The morning sky on a carbon world would be" "The morning sky on a carbon world would be carbon world would be anything but crystal anything but crystal clear and blue." "anything but crystal clear and blue." " clear and blue." " I'm" "I'm picturing a yellow haze" "I'm picturing a yellow haze picturing a yellow haze with black clouds of soot." "with black clouds of soot." "with black clouds of soot." "And as you descended" "And as you descended farther down into the" "And as you descended farther down into the farther down into the atmosphere, I can imagine atmosphere, I can imagine lakes that were made out atmosphere, I can imagine lakes that were made out lakes that were made out of the compounds like" "of the compounds like methane or gasoline." "of the compounds like methane or gasoline." "methane or gasoline." "I'm picturing these" "I'm picturing these bubbling foul-smelling" "I'm picturing these bubbling foul-smelling bubbling foul-smelling pits of black ooze, pits of black ooze, like an oil well." "pits of black ooze, like an oil well." " like an oil well." " With little" "With little or no water in the" "With little or no water in the or no water in the atmosphere, the air is atmosphere, the air is made of carbon compounds." "atmosphere, the air is made of carbon compounds." " made of carbon compounds." " Methane," "Methane, butane, pentane, benzene." "Methane, butane, pentane, benzene." "butane, pentane, benzene." "All these different kinds" "All these different kinds of carbon compounds that" "All these different kinds of carbon compounds that of carbon compounds that separate out when separate out when you refine gasoline." "separate out when you refine gasoline." "you refine gasoline." "One day it might" "One day it might be raining benzene," "One day it might be raining benzene, be raining benzene, the next day it might the next day it might be raining butane." "the next day it might be raining butane." " be raining butane." " Alien as carbon" "Alien as carbon planets might seem," "Alien as carbon planets might seem, planets might seem, the air quality could the air quality could be familiar to some." "the air quality could be familiar to some." " be familiar to some." " The air" "The air in a very benzene-rich" "The air in a very benzene-rich in a very benzene-rich planet will resemble that planet will resemble that of L.A., a lot of smog planet will resemble that of L.A., a lot of smog of L.A., a lot of smog particles that" "particles that unfortunately we are quite particles that unfortunately we are quite unfortunately we are quite used to from the used to from the exhaust of cars." "used to from the exhaust of cars." " exhaust of cars." " Despite" "Despite the pollution," "Despite the pollution, the pollution, Carbon Planets could come" "Carbon Planets could come with a sparkling upside." "Carbon Planets could come with a sparkling upside." " with a sparkling upside." " You might" "You might see diamonds because the" "You might see diamonds because the see diamonds because the planet may have planet may have substantial quantities of planet may have substantial quantities of substantial quantities of pure carbon that it's pure carbon that it's formed out of and pure" "pure carbon that it's formed out of and pure formed out of and pure carbon when you compress carbon when you compress it tends to form into carbon when you compress it tends to form into it tends to form into diamond." "diamond." " diamond." " The secrets of" "The secrets of exotic planets like these" "The secrets of exotic planets like these exotic planets like these are waiting to be are waiting to be discovered all across the are waiting to be discovered all across the discovered all across the galaxy." "galaxy." "galaxy." "But astronomers won't be" "But astronomers won't be satisfied until they find" "But astronomers won't be satisfied until they find satisfied until they find the holy grail." "the holy grail." "the holy grail." "A planet like our own." "A planet like our own." "A planet like our own." "One that sustains life." "One that sustains life." "One that sustains life." "The next Earth." "The next Earth." " The next Earth." " People" "People always ask me," "People always ask me, always ask me, do I think we're going to do I think we're going to find another planet like do I think we're going to find another planet like find another planet like Earth?" "Earth?" "Earth?" "And I answer absolutely." "And I answer absolutely." " And I answer absolutely." " Every star" "Every star probably has planets" "Every star probably has planets probably has planets roughly the same roughly the same size as our Earth." "roughly the same size as our Earth." " size as our Earth." " We think that" "We think that essentially every star," "We think that essentially every star, essentially every star, has several Earth mass or has several Earth mass or Super Earth mass planets." "has several Earth mass or Super Earth mass planets." "Super Earth mass planets." "So if you have, say," "So if you have, say, 200 billion stars in the" "So if you have, say, 200 billion stars in the 200 billion stars in the galaxy, that may mean galaxy, that may mean there are 400 billion galaxy, that may mean there are 400 billion there are 400 billion Earths in the" "Earths in the galaxy or more." "Earths in the galaxy or more." " galaxy or more." " 400 400 billion Earths." "400 billion Earths." "billion Earths." "The Kepler Space" "The Kepler Space Observatory is the first" "The Kepler Space Observatory is the first" "Observatory is the first instrument capable of instrument capable of finding one of these instrument capable of finding one of these finding one of these planets." "planets." " planets." " Kepler" "Kepler is looking at the" "Kepler is looking at the is looking at the constellation Cygnus constellation Cygnus in the night sky at constellation Cygnus in the night sky at in the night sky at 100, 000 stars, taking" "100, 000 stars, taking picture after picture after 100, 000 stars, taking picture after picture after picture after picture after picture, minute picture, minute after minute." "picture, minute after minute." "after minute." "And the goal of" "And the goal of Kepler is simple;" "And the goal of Kepler is simple;" "Kepler is simple;" "to look for stars among to look for stars among the 100,000 that dim." "to look for stars among the 100,000 that dim." " the 100,000 that dim." " When a" "When a star dims slightly," "When a star dims slightly, star dims slightly, it means a planet it means a planet passes in front, it means a planet passes in front, passes in front, blocking some blocking some of the light." "blocking some of the light." "of the light." "How long the star dims," "How long the star dims, and how much light gets" "How long the star dims, and how much light gets and how much light gets blocked, will tell blocked, will tell scientists about the size blocked, will tell scientists about the size scientists about the size of the planet and the" "of the planet and the distance from its Sun." "of the planet and the distance from its Sun." " distance from its Sun." " A good" "A good analogy for this is" "A good analogy for this is analogy for this is looking for the dip in the looking for the dip in the light that you would see looking for the dip in the light that you would see light that you would see from a searchlight, if a" "from a searchlight, if a small moth flew across the from a searchlight, if a small moth flew across the small moth flew across the search light." "search light." "search light." "And so it's a really tiny" "And so it's a really tiny dip in the light as the" "And so it's a really tiny dip in the light as the dip in the light as the planet transits." "planet transits." " planet transits." " It is" "It is a very powerful technique" "It is a very powerful technique a very powerful technique because it allows you to because it allows you to discover planets that are because it allows you to discover planets that are discover planets that are even smaller than the size" "even smaller than the size of the earth around stars even smaller than the size of the earth around stars of the earth around stars similar to the sun." "similar to the sun." " similar to the sun." " It is a" "It is a technique that is changing" "It is a technique that is changing technique that is changing the course of science." "the course of science." " the course of science." " We think" "We think we may be able to find a" "We think we may be able to find a we may be able to find a planet that is habitable planet that is habitable in the next few years." "planet that is habitable in the next few years." " in the next few years." " Scientists" "Scientists estimate the Kepler" "Scientists estimate the Kepler estimate the Kepler mission will find a mission will find a minimum of 50 alien mission will find a minimum of 50 alien minimum of 50 alien earths." "earths." " earths." " One of the" "One of the big questions that anybody" "One of the big questions that anybody big questions that anybody looking for life beyond looking for life beyond the earth is facing today looking for life beyond the earth is facing today the earth is facing today is, what if we don't" "is, what if we don't recognize life even though is, what if we don't recognize life even though recognize life even though we discover it?" "we discover it?" " we discover it?" " Conditions on an" "Conditions on an Alien Earth may cause life" "Conditions on an Alien Earth may cause life" "Alien Earth may cause life to evolve differently." "to evolve differently." " to evolve differently." " My hope is" "My hope is that we'll see some sign" "My hope is that we'll see some sign that we'll see some sign that will make our hairs that will make our hairs stand up on the back of that will make our hairs stand up on the back of" "stand up on the back of our necks." "our necks." " our necks." " Whatever" "Whatever that sign is," "Whatever that sign is, that sign is, it will be the first it will be the first chapter on the greatest it will be the first chapter on the greatest scientific story ever told."